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FORGE-PRACTICE 



{ELEMENTARY) 



JOHN LORD BACON 

Instructor in Forge-nvork, Leivis institute, Chicago 
Junior Member, American Society of Mechanical Engineers 



FIRST EDITION 
FIRST THOUSAND 



NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY & SONS 

London : CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 

1904 




L1BSARV of 0ON6RESS 
TWO Oooles Received 

AUG 19 1904 
Copyright Entry 

CLASS Ct xxo. No. 

° COPY B \ 



Copyright, 1904 

BY 

JOHN L. BACON 



I 



V 






ROBERT PRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK 



Co mg tmiU, 



WITHOUT WHOSE ASSISTANCE IT WOULD 

NEVER HAVE BEEN WRITTEN, 

THIS LITTLE VOLUME IS 

DEDICATED. 



PREFACE. 



This little volume is the outgrowth of a series of 
notes given to the students at Lewis Institute from time 
to time in connection with shop work of the character 
described. 

It is not the author's purpose to attempt to put forth 
anything which will in any way take the place of actual 
shop work, but rather to give some explanation which will 
aid in the production of work in an intelligent manner. 

The examples cited are not necessarily given in the 
order in which they could most advantageously be made 
as a series of exercises, but are grouped under general 
headings in such a way as to be more convenient for 
reference. 

The original drawings from which the engravings 
were made were drawn by L. S. B. 

v 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I 

PAGB 

General Description of Forge and Tools i 



CHAPTER II. 
Welding 17 

CHAPTER III. 
Calculation of Stock for Bent Shapes ,. 41 

CHAPTER IV 
Upsetting, Drawing Out, and Bending 51 

CHAPTER V. 
Simple Forged Work 68 

CHAPTER VI. 

Calculation of Stock; and Making of General Forgings. ... 90 

CHAPTER VII. 
Steam-hammer Work 120 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Duplicate Work 146 

vii 



Vlll CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER IX. 

PAGE 

Metallurgy of Iron and Steel 159 



CHAPTER X. 
Tool-steel Work 174 

CHAPTER XL 
Tool Forging and Tempering 197 

CHAPTER XII. 
Miscellaneous Work 221 

Tables 243 

Index 251 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 

Forge. — The principal part of the forge as gener- 
ally made now is simply a cast-iron hearth with 
a bowl, or depression, in the center for the fire. 
In the bottom of this bowl is an opening through 
which the blast is forced. This blast-opening 
is known as the tuyere. Tuyeres are made in 
various shapes; but the object is the same in all, 
that is, to provide an opening, or a number of 
openings, of such a shape as to easily allow the 
blast to pass through, and at the same time, as 
much as possible, to prevent the cinders from 
dropping into the blast-pipe. 

There should be some means of opening the 
blast-pipe beneath the tuyere and cleaning out 
the cinders which work through the tuyere-open- 
ings, as some cinders are bound to do this no 
matter how carefully the tuyere is designed. 

When a long fire is wanted, sometimes several 



2 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

tuyeres are placed in a line; and for some special 
work the tuyeres take the form of nozzles pro- 
jecting inwardly from the side of the forge. 

Coal.— The coal used for forge-work should be 
of the best quality bituminous, or soft, coal. It 
should coke easily; that is, when dampened and 
put on the fire it should cake up, form coke, and 
not break into small pieces. It should be as free 
from sulphur as possible, and make very little 
clinker when burned. 

Good forge-coal should be of even structure 
through the lumps, and the lumps should crumble 
easily in the hand. The lumps should crumble 
rather than split up into layers, and the broken 
pieces should look bright and glossy on all faces, 
almost like black glass, and show no dull-looking 
streaks. 

Ordinary soft coal, such as is used for "steam- 
ing-coal," makes a dirty fire with much clinker. 
" Steaming-coal " when broken is liable to split 
into layers, some of which are bright and glossy, 
while others are dull and slaty-looking. 

Fire. — On the fire, to a very great extent, depends 
the success or failure of all forging operations, 
particularly work with tool-steel and welding. 

In building a new fire the ashes, cinders, etc., 
should be cleaned away from the center of the 
forge down to the tuyere. Do not clean out the 
whole top of the forge, but only the part where 
the new fire is wanted, leaving, after the old 
material has been taken out, a clean hole in which 
to start the fresh fire. 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 3 

The hearth of the forge is generally kept filled 
with cinders, etc., even with the top of the rim. 

Shavings, oily waste, or some other easily lighted 
material should be placed on top of the tuyere 
and set on fire. 

As soon as the shavings are well lighted, the 
blast should be turned on and coke (more or less 
of which is always left over from the last fire) 
put on top and outside of the burning shavings. 
Over this the "green coal" should be spread. 

Green coal is fresh coal dampened with water. 
Before using the forge-coal it should be broken 
into small pieces and thoroughly wet with water. 
This is necessary, as it holds together better when 
coking, making better coke and keeping in the 
heat of the fire better. It is also easier to prevent 
the fire from spreading out too much, as this 
dampened coal can be packed down hard around 
the edges, keeping the blast from blowing through. 

The fire should not be used until all the coal on 
top has been coked. As the fire burns out in the 
center, the coke, which has been forming around 
the edge, is pushed into the middle, and more 
green coal added around the outside. 

We might say the fire is made up of three parts : 
the center where the coke is forming and the iron 
heating; a ring around and next to this center 
where coke is forming; and, outside of this, a ring 
of green coal. 

This is the ordinary method of making a small 
fire. 

This sort of fire is suitable for smaller kinds of 



4 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

work. It can be used for about an hour or two, 
at the end of which time it should be cleaned. 
When welding, the cleaning should be done much 
oftener. 

Large Fires. — Larger fires are sometimes made 
as follows: Enough coke is first made to last for 
several hours by mounding up green coal over 
the newly started fire and letting it burn slowly 
to coke thoroughly. This coke is then shoveled 
to one side and the fire again started in the follow- 
ing way: A large block, the size of the intended 
fire, is placed on top of the tuyere and green coal 
is packed down hard on each side, forming two 
mounds of closely packed coal. The block is 
taken out and the fire started in the hole between 
the two mounds, coke being added as necessary. 
This sort of a fire is sometimes called a stock fire, 
and will last for some time. The mounds keep 
the fire together and help to hold in the heat. 

For larger work, or where a great many pieces 
are to be heated at once, or when a very even 
or long-continued heat is wanted, a furnace is 
used. For furnace use, and often for large forge- 
fires, the coke is bought ready-made. 

Banking Fires. — When a forge -fire is left it 
should always be banked. The coke should be 
well raked up together into a mound and then 
covered with green coal. This will keep the fire 
alive for some time and insure plenty of good 
coke for starting anew when it does die out. A 
still better method to follow, when it is desired 
to keep the fire for some time, is to bury a block 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 5 

of wood in the center of the fire when bank- 
ing it. 

Oxidizing Fire. — When the blast is supplied 
from a power fan, or blower, the beginner generally 
tries to use too much air and blow the fire too hard. 

Coal requires a certain amount of air to burn 
properly, and as it burns it consumes the oxygen 
from the air. When too much blast is used the 
oxygen is not all burned out of the air and will 
affect the heated iron in the fire. Whenever a 
piece of hot iron comes in contact with the air the 
oxygen of the air attacks the iron and forms oxide. 
This oxide is the scale which is seen on the outside 
of iron. The higher the temperature to which the 
iron is heated, the more easily the oxide is formed. 
When welding, particularly, there should be as 
little scale, or oxide, as possible, and to prevent its 
formation the iron should not be heated in con- 
tact with any more air than necessary. Even on 
an ordinary forging this scale is a disadvantage, 
to say the least, as it must be cleaned off, and 
even then is liable to leave the surface of the work 
pitted and rough. If it were possible to keep air 
away from the iron entirely, no trace of scale would 
be formed, even at a high heat. 

If just enough air is blown into the fire to make 
it burn properly, all the oxygen will be burned 
out, and very little, if any, scale will be formed 
while heating. On the other hand, if too much 
air is used, the oxygen will not all be consumed 
and this unburned oxygen will attack' the iron 
and form scale. This is known as "oxidizing"; 



6 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

that is, when too much air is admitted to the fire 
the surplus oxygen will attack the iron, forming 
"oxide," or scale. This sort of a fire is known as 
an " oxidizing" fire and has a tendency to " oxidize" 
anything heated in it. 

Anvil. — The ordinary anvil, Fig. i, has a body 
of cast iron, wrought iron, or soft steel, with a 
tool-steel face welded on and hardened. The 
hardened steel covers jus + the top face, leaving 
the horn and the small block next the horn of the 
softer material. 




Fig. i. 



The anvil should be so placed that as the work- 
man faces it the horn will point toward his left. 

The square hardie-hole in the right-hand end of 
the face is to receive and hold the stems of hardies, 
swages, etc. 

For small work the anvil should weigh about 
150 lbs. 

Hot and Cold Chisels. — Two kinds of chisels are 
commonly used in the forge-shop: one for cutting 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. J 

cold stock, and the other for cutting red-hot metal. 
These are called cold and hot chisels. 

The cold chisel is generally made a little thicker 
in the blade than the hot chisel, which is forged 
down to a thin edge. 

Fig. 2 shows common shapes for cold and hot 
chisels, as well as a hardie, another tool used for 
cutting. 




HARDIE 



Fig. 2. 



Both chisels should be tempered alike when 
made. 

The cold chisel holds its temper ; but, from con- 
tact with hot metal, the hot chisel soon has its 
edge softened. For these reasons the two chisels 
should never be used in place of each other, for by 
using the cold chisel on hot work the temper is 
drawn and the edge left too soft for cutting cold 
metal, while the hot chisel soon becomes so soft 
that if used in place of the cold it will have its 
edge turned and rui'ned. 

It would seem that it is useless to temper a hot 
chisel, as the heated work, with which the chisel 



8 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



comes in contact, so soon draws the temper. When 
the chisel is tempered, however, the steel is left in 
a much better condition even after being affected 
by hot metal on which it is used than it would 
be if the chisel were made untempered. 

Grinding Chis:ls. — It is very important to have 
the chisels, particularly cold chisels, ground cor- 
rectly, and the following directions should be 
carefully followed. 

The sides of a cold chisel should be ground to 
form an angle of about 6o° with each other, as 
shown in Fig. 3. This makes an angle blunt 




Fig. 3. 

enough to wear well, and also sharp enough to 
cut well. 

The cutting edge should be ground convex, 
or curving outward, as at B. This prevents the 
corners from breaking off. When the edge of the 
chisel is in this shape, the strain of cutting tends 
to force the corners back against the solid metal 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 9 

in the central part of the tool. If the edge were 
made concave, like C, the strain would tend to 
force the corners outward and snap them off. The 
arrows on B and C indicate the direction of these 
forces. 

Hot chisels should be ground sharper. The 
sides should be ground at an angle of about 30 
instead of 6o°. 

Another tool used for cutting is the hardie. This 
takes the place of the cold or hot chisel. It has a 
stem fitted to the square hole in the right-hand end 
of the anvil face, this stem holding the hardie in 
place when in use. 

Cutting Stock. — When soft steel and wrought-iron 
bars are cut with a cold chisel the method should 
be about as follows: First cut about one-fourth 
of the way through the bar on one side; then 
make a cut across each edge at the ends of the 
first cut; turn the bar over and cut across the 
second side about one-fourth the way through; 
tilt the bar slightly, with the cut resting on the 
outside corner of the anvil, and by striking a sharp 
blow with the sledge on the projecting end, the 
piece can generally be easily broken off. 

Chisels should always be kept carefully ground 
and sharp. 

A much easier way of cutting stock is to use 
bar shears, but these are not always at hand. 

The edge of a chisel should never under any circum- 
stances be driven clear through the stock and allowed 
to come in contact with the hard face of the anvil. 

Sometimes when trimming thin stock it is con- 



I O FORGE-PRACTICE. 

venient to cut clear through the piece ; in this 
case the cutting should be done either on the horn, 
the soft block next the horn, or the stock to be 
cut should be backed up with some soft metal. 
An easy way to do this is to cut a wide strip of 
stock about two inches longer than the width of 
the face of the anvil, and bencl the ends down to 
fit over the sides of the anvil. The cutting may 
be done on this without injury to the edge of the 
chisel. It is very convenient to have one of these 
strips always at hand for use when trimming thin 
work with a hot chisel. 

The author has seen a copper block used for 
this same purpose. The block 
was formed like Fig. 4, the stem 
being shaped to fit into the hardie- 
hole of the anvil. This block was 
designed for use principally when 
Fig. 4. trimming thin parts of heated 

work with a hot chisel. 

Care should always be taken to see that the 
work rests flat on the anvil or block when 
cutting. The work should be supported directly 
underneath the point where the cutting is to be 
done; and the solider the support, the easier the 
cutting. 

Hammers. — Various shapes and sizes of hammers 
are used, but the commonest, and most convenient 
for ordinary use, is the ball pene-hammer shown in 

Fig. 5- 

The large end is used for ordinary work, and 
the small ball end, or pene, for riveting, scarfing, 




GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 



II 



etc. These hammers vary in weight from a few 
ounces up to several pounds. For ordinary use 
about a i£- or 2 -pound hammer is used. 

Several other types in ordinary use are illustrated 





Pig. 6. 

in Fig. 6. A is a straight-pene ; B, a cross-pene; 
and C, a riveting-hammer. 

Sledges.— Very light sledges are sometimes made 
the same shape as ball-pene hammers. They are 
used for light tool-work and boiler- work. 

Fig. 7 illustrates a common shape for sledges. 
This is a double-faced sledge. 



y v ^ 



A 




Fig. 7. 



Fig. 8. 



Sledges are also made with a cross-pene or straight- 
pene, as shown in Fig. 8. 



12 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



For ordinary work a sledge should weigh about 
10 or 12 lbs.; for heavy work, from 16 to 20. 

Sledges for light work weigh about 5 or 6 lbs. 

Tongs. — Tongs are made in a wide variety of 
shapes and sizes, depending upon the work they 
are intended to hold. Three of the more ordinary 
shapes are illustrated. 

The ordinary straight-jawed tongs are shown in 
Fig. 9. They are used for holding flat iron. For 
holding round iron the jaws are grooved or bent 
to the shape of the piece to be held. 

Fig. 10 shows a pair of bolt-tongs. These tongs 
are used for holding bolts or pieces which are larger 
on the end than through the body, and are so 
shaped that the tongs do not touch the enlarged end 
when the jaws grip the body of the work. 



Fig. 9. 




Fig. 10. 




Fig. 11. 



Pick-up tongs, Fig. 11, are used for handling 
small pieces, tempering, etc., but are very seldom 
used for holding work while forging. 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 1 3 

Fitting Tongs to Work. — Tongs should always be 
carefully fitted to the work they are intended to 
hold. 

Tongs which fit the work in the manner shown 
in Fig. 12 should not be used until more carefully 
fitted. In the first case shown, the jaws are too 
close together; and in the second case, too far 
apart. 




Fig. 



Fig. 13. 



When properly fitted, the jaws should touch 
the work the entire length, as illustrated in Fig. 
13. With properly fitted tongs the work may be 
held firmly, but if fitted as shown in Fig. 12 there 
is always a very "wobbly" action between the 
jaws and the work. 

To fit a pair of tongs to a piece of work, the jaws 
should be heated red-hot, the piece to be held 
placed between them, and the jaws closed down 
tight around the piece with a hammer. To pre- 
vent the handles from being brought too close 
together while the tongs are being fitted, a short 
piece of stock should be held between them just 



14 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



back of the jaws. If the handles are too far apart, 
a few blows just back of the eye will close them up. 

Flatter — Set-hammer — Swage — Fuller — Swage-block. 
— Among the commonest tools used in forge-work 
are the ones mentioned above. 

The natter, Fig. 14, as its name implies, is used 
for flattening and smoothing straight surfaces. 

The face of the natter is generally from 2 inches 
to 3 inches square, and should be kept perfectly 
smooth with the edges slightly rounding. 





Fig. 14. 



Fig. 



Fig. 15 shows a set-hammer. This is used for 
finishing parts which cannot be reached with the 
natter, up into corners, and work of that character. 
The face of this tool also should be smooth and 
flat, with the corners more or less rounded, depend- 
ing on the work it is intended to do. 

Set-hammers for small work should be about 
1 or 1 1 inches square on the face. 

' ' Set-hammer " is a name which is sometimes 
given to almost any tool provided with a handle, 
which tool in use is held in place and struck with 
another hammer. Thus, flatters, swages, fullers, 
etc., are sometimes classed under the general name 
of set-hammers. 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 



is 



Fullers, Fig. 16, are used for finishing up filleted 
corners, forming grooves, and for numerous pur- 
poses which will be given more in detail later. 

They are made in a variety of sizes, the size 
being determined by the shape of the edge A. 
On a £ inch fuller this edge would be a half-circle 
^ inch in diameter ; on a f inch it would be f inch 
in diameter, etc. 

Fullers are made "top" and "bottom." The 
one shown with a handle is a "top" fuller, and 
the lower one in the illustration is a "bottom" 
fuller and has the stem forged to fit into the square 
hardie-hole of the anvil. This stem should be a 
loose fit in the hardie-hole. Tools of this character 
should never be used on an anvil where they fit 
so tightly that it is necessary to drive them into 
place. 

A top and bottom swage is shown in Fig. 17. 
The swages shown here are for finishing round 




Fig. 16. 



Fig. 18. 



Fig. 17. 

work; but swages are made to be used for other 
shapes as well. 



1 6 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Swages are sized according to the shape they are 
made to fit. A i-inch round swage, for instance, 
is made to fit a circle i inch in diameter, and would 
be used for finishing work of that size. 

All of the above tools are made of low-carbon 
tool steel. 

A swage-block is shown in Fig. 18. These blocks 
are made in a variety of shapes; the illustration 
showing a common form for general use. This 
block is made of cast iron and is about 3^ inches 
thick. It has a wide range of uses and is very 
convenient for general work, where it takes the' 
place of a good many special tools. 



CHAPTER II. 

WELDING. 

Welding-heat. — A piece of wrought iron or mild 
steel, when heated, as the temperature increases 
becomes softer and softer until at last a heat is 
reached at which the iron is so soft that if another 
piece of iron heated to . the same point touches it, 
the two will stick together. The heat at which 
the two pieces will stick together is known as the 
welding-heat. If the iron is heated much beyond 
this point, it will burn. All metals cannot be welded 
(in the sense in which the term is ordinarily used). 
Some, when heated, remain very dense and retain 
almost their initial hardness until a certain heat 
is reached, when a very slight rise of temperature 
will cause them to either crumble or melt. Only 
those metals which, as the temperature is increased, 
become gradually softer, passing slowly from the 
solid to the liquid state, can be welded easily. 
Metals of this kind just before melting become 
soft and more or less pasty, and it is in this con- 
dition that they are most weldable. The greater 
the range of temperature through which the metal 
remains pasty the more easily may it be welded. 

In nearly all welding the greatest trouble is in 
heating the metal properly. The fire must be clean 

17 



16 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

and bright or the result will be a "dirty" heat; 
that is, small pieces of cinder and other dirt will 
stick to the metal, get in between the two pieces, 
and make a bad weld. 

Too much care cannot be used in welding ; if the 
pieces are too cold they will not stick, and no 
amount of hammering will weld them. On the 
other hand, if they are kept in the fire too long 
and heated to too high ■ a temperature they will 
be burned, and burned iron is absolutely worthless. 

The heating must be done siowly enough to 
insure the work heating evenly all the way through. 
If heated too rapidly, the outside may be at the 
proper heat while the interior metal is much colder ; 
and, as soon as taken from the fire, this cooler 
metal on the inside and the air almost instantly 
cool the surface to be welded below the welding 
temperature, and it will be too cold to weld by 
the time any work can be done on it. 

If the pieces are properly heated (when welding 
wrought iron or mild steel), they will feel sticky 
when brought in contact. 

When welding, it is best to be sure that every- 
thing is ready before the iron is taken from the 
fire. All the tools should be so placed that they 
may be picked up without looking to see where 
they are. The face of the anvil should be perfectly 
clean, and the hammer in such a position that it 
will not be knocked out of the way when the work 
is placed on the anvil for welding. 

All the tools being in place, and the iron brought 
to the proper heat, the tongs should be held in 



WELDING. 19 

such a way that the pieces can be easily placed in 
position for welding without changing the grip or 
letting go of them ; then, when everything is ready, 
the blast should be shut off, the pieces taken from 
the fire, placed together on the anvil, and welded 
together with rapid blows of the hammer, welding 
(after the pieces are once stuck together) the 
thin parts first, as these are the parts which 
naturally cool the quickest. 

Burning Iron or Steel. — The statement that iron 
can be burned seems to the beginner to be rather 
exaggerated. The truth of this can, however, be 
very easily shown. If a bar of iron be heated in the 
forge and considerable blast turned on, the bar will 
grow hotter and hotter, until at last sparks will be 
seen coming from the fire. These sparks, which are 
quite unlike the ordinary ones from the fire, are 
white and seem to explode and form little white 
stars. 

These sparks are small particles of burning iron 
which have been blown upward out of the fire. 

The same sparks may be made by dropping fine 
iron-filings into a gas-flame, or by burning a piece 
of oily waste which has been used for wiping up 
iron-filings. 

If the bar of iron be taken from the fire at the 
time these sparks appear, the end of the bar will 
seem white and sparkling, with sparks, like stars 
similar to those in the fire, coming from it. If the 
heating be continued long enough, the end of the 
bar will be partly consumed, forming lumps similar 
to the "clinkers" taken from a coal fire. 



20 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

: To burn iron two things are necessary: a high 
enough heat, and the presence of oxygen. 

As noted before, when welding, care must be 
taken not to have too much air going through the 
fire; in other words, not to have an oxidizing fire. 

If the fire is not an oxidizing one, there is not so 
much danger of injury to the iron by burning and 
the forming of scale. 

Iron which has been overheated and partially 
burned has a rough, spongy appearance and is 
brittle and crumbly. 

Use of Fluxes in Welding. — When a piece of iron 
or steel is heated for welding under ordinary con- 
ditions the outside is oxidized; that is, a thin film 
of iron oxide is formed. This oxide is the black 
scale which is continually falling from heated iron 
and is formed when heated iron is brought in contact 
with the air. This oxide of iron is not fluid except 
at a very high heat, and, if allowed to stay on the 
iron, will prevent a good weld. 

When welding without a flux the iron is brought 
to a high enough heat to melt the oxide, which is 
forced from between the welding pieces by the 
blows of the hammer. 

This heat may easily be taken when welding 
ordinary iron; but when working with some ma- 
chine-steel, and particularly tool-steel, the metal 
cannot be heated to a high enough temperature 
to melt the oxide without burning the steel. 

From the above it would seem impossible to weld 
steel, as it cannot be heated under ordinary condi- 
tions without oxidizing, but by the use of a flux 



WELDING. 2 1 

this difficulty may be overcome and the oxide 
melted at a lower temperature. 

The flux (sand and borax are the most common) 
should be sprinkled on the part of the piece to be 
welded when it has reached about a yellow heat, 
and the heating continued until the metal is at a 
proper temperature to be soft enough to weld, but 
care should be taken to see that the flux covers 
the parts to be welded together. 

The flux has a double action; in the first place, 
as it melts it flows over the piece and forms a 
protecting covering which prevents oxidation, 
and also when raised to the proper heat dissolves 
the oxide that has already formed. 

The oxide melts at a much lower heat when 
combined with the flux than without it, and to 
melt the oxide is the principal use of the flux. The 
metal when heated in contact with the flux becomes 
soft and "weldable" at a lower temperature than 
when without it. 

Ordinary borax contains water which causes it 
to bubble up when heated. If the heating is con- 
tinued at a high temperature, the borax melts 
and runs like water; this melted borax, when 
cooled, is called borax-glass. 

Borax for welding is sometimes fused as above 
and then powdered for use. 

Sal ammoniac mixed with borax seems to clean 
the surface better than borax alone. A flux made 
of one part of sal ammoniac and four parts borax 
works well, particularly when welding tool-steel, 
and is a little better than borax alone. 



2 2 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Most patented welding compounds have borax 
as a basis, and are very little, if any, better 
than the ordinary mixture given above. 

The flux does not in any way stick the pieces 
together or act as a cement or glue. Its use is 
principally to help melt the oxide already formed 
and to prevent the formation of more. 

Iron filings are sometimes mixed with borax and 
used as a flux. 

When using a flux the work should always be 
scarfed the same as when no flux is used. The 
pieces can be welded, however, at a lower 
heat. 

Fagot or Pile Welding. — When a large forging 
is to be made of wrought iron, small pieces of 
"scrap" iron (old horseshoes, bolts, nuts, etc.) 
are placed together in a square or rectangular 
pile on a board, bound together with wire, heated 
to welding heat in a furnace, and welded together 
into one solid lump, and the forging made from 
this. If there is not enough metal in one lump, 
several are made in this way and afterward welded 
to each other — making one large piece. This is 
known as fagot or pile welding. 

Sand is used for fluxing to a 
large extent on work of this kind. 
Sometimes a small fagot weld 
is made by laying two or more 
pieces together and welding them 
their entire length, or one piece 
may be doubled together several 
times and welded into a lump. Such a weld is 





WELDING. 23 

shown in Fig. 19, which shows the piece before 
welding and also after being welded and shaped. 

Scarfing. — In a f^got weld the pieces are not 
prepared or shaped for each other, being simply laid 
together and welded, but for most welding the 
ends of the pieces to be joined should be so shaped 
that they will fit together and form a smooth 
joint when welded. This is called scarfing. It 
is very important that the scarfing be properly 
done, as a badly shaped scarf will probably spoil 
the weld. For instance, if an attempt be made 
to weld two bars together simply by overlapping 
their ends, as in Fig. 20, the weld when finished 
would be something like Fig. 21. Each bar would 




Fig. 20. 



Fig. 21. 



be forged into the other and leave a small crack 
where the end came. On the other hand, if the 
ends of the bars were properly scarfed or pointed, 
they could be welded together and leave no mark — 
making a smooth joint. 

Lap-welds are sometimes made without scarf- 
ing when manufacturing many pieces alike, but 
this should not be attempted in ordinary work. 



24 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Lap-weld Scarf. — In preparing for the lap-weld, 
the ends of the pieces to be welded should be first 
upset until they are considerably thicker than the 
rest of the bar. This is done to allow for the 
iron which burns off, or is lost by scaling, and 
also to allow for the hammering which must be 
done when welding the pieces together. To make 
a proper weld the joint should be well hammered 
together, and as this reduces the size of the iron 
at that point the pieces must be upset to allow 
for this reduction in size in order to have the weld 
the same size as the bar. 

If the ends are not upset enough in the first 
place, it requires considerable hard work to upset 
the weld after they are joined together. Too 
much upsetting does no harm, and the extra 
metal is very easily worked into shape. To be on 
the safe side it is better to upset a little more than 
is absolutely necessary — it may save considerable 
work afterwards. 

If more than one heating will be necessary to 
make a weld, the iron should be upset just that 
much more to allow for the extra waste due to 
the second or third heating. 

Flat Lap-weld. — The lap-weld is the weld ordinarily 
used to join flat or round bars of iron together 
end to end. 

Following is a description of a flat lap-weld: 
The ends of the pieces to be joined must be first 
upset. When heating for upsetting heat only the 
end as shown in Fig. 22, where the shaded part 
indicates the hotter metal. To heat this way 



WELDING. 



25 



place only the extreme end of the bar in the fire, 
so the heat will not run back too far. The end 
should be upset until it looks about like Fig. 23. 





Fig. 22. 



Fig. 23. 



When starting to shape the scarf use the round 
or pene end of the hammer. Do not strike directly 
down on the work, but let the blows come at an 
angle of about 45 degrees and in such a way as to 
force the metal back toward the base as shown in Fig. 





Fig. 24. 



Fig. 25. 



24. This drives the metal back and makes a sort of 
thick ridge at the beginning of the scarf. In 
finishing the scarf, use the flat face of the hammer, 
and bring the piece to the very edge of the anvil, 
as in this way a hard blow may be struck without 
danger of hitting the anvil instead of the work. 
The proper position is shown in Fig. 25. 

The scarfs should be shaped as in Fig. 26, leav- 
ing them slightly convex and not concave, as 
shown in Fig. 27. 



26 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

The reason for this is that if the scarfed ends be 
concave when the two pieces are put together, a 

c 





Fig. 26. Fig. 27. 

small pocket or hollow will be left between them, 
the scarfs touching only the edges. When the 
weld is hammered together, these edges being in 
contact will naturally weld first, closing up all 
outlet to the pocket. As the surface of the scarf 
is more or less covered with melted scale and 
other impurities, some of this will be held in the 
pocket and make a bad place in the weld. On 
the other hand, if the scarfs are convex, the metal 
will first stick in the very center of the scarf, forc- 
ing out the melted scale at the sides of the joint 
as the hammering continues. 

The length of the scarf should be about 1^ times 
the thickness of the bar; thus on a bar \" thick 
the scarf should be about \" long. 

The width of the end A should be slightly less 
than the width B of the bar. In welding the two 
pieces together, the first piece should be placed 
scarf side up on the anvil, and the second piece 
laid on top, scarf side down, in such a way that 
the thin edges of the second piece will lap over 
the thick ridge C on the first piece as shown in 
Fig. 28. The piece which is laid on top should 
be held by the smith doing the welding, the other 
may be handled by the helper. 



WELDING. 



27 



The helper should place his piece in position 
on the anvil first. As it is rather hard to lay the 
other piece directly on top of this and place it 
exactly in the right position, it is better to rest 
the second piece on the corner of the anvil as 




Fig. 28. 



Fig. 29. 



shown at A, Fig. 29, and thus guide it into position. 
In this way the piece may be steadied and placed 
on the other in the right position without any 
loss of time. 

When heating for a lap-weld, or for that matter 
any weld where two pieces are joined together, 
great care should be taken to bring both pieces 
to the same heat at the same time. If one piece 
heats faster than the other, it should be taken 
from the fire and allowed to cool until the other 
piece "catches up" with it. It requires some 
practice to so place the pieces in the fire that they 
will be heated uniformly and equally. The tips 
particularly must be watched, and it may be 
necessary to cool them from time to time in the 
water-bucket to prevent the extreme ends from 
burning off. 

The fire must be clean, and the heating should be 
done slowly in order to insure its being done evenly. 

Just before taking the pieces from the fire they 



28 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

should be turned scarf side down for a short time, 
to be sure that the surfaces to be joined will be hot. 

More blast should be used at the last moment 
than when starting to heat. 

The only way to know how this heating is going 
on is to take the pieces from the fire from time 
to time and look at them. The color grows lighter 
as the temperature increases, until finally, when 
the welding heat is reached, the iron will seem 
almost white. The exact heat can only be learned 
by experience; but the workman should recognize 
it after a little practice as soon as he sees it. 

To get an indication of the heat, which will help 
sometimes, watch the sparks that come from the 
fire. When the little, white, explosive sparks 
come they show that some of the iron has been 
heated hot enough to be melted off in small particles 
and is burning. This serves as a rough indication 
that the iron is somewhere near the welding heat. 
This should never be relied on entirely, as the 
condition of the fire has much to do with their 
appearance. 

Round Lap-weld. — The round lap-weld — the weld 
used to join round bars end to end — is made in 
much the same way as the ordinary or flat lap- 
weld. The directions given for making the flat 
weld apply to the round lap as 
well, excepting that the scarf 
C~ ?"\ is slightly different in shape. 

The proper shape of scarf is 

' J °' shown in Fig. 30, which gives 

the top and side views of the piece. One side is 



0> 



WELDING. 2 

left straight, the other three sides tapering in 
to meet it in a point. The length of the scarf 
should be about one and one-half times the 
diameter of the bar. Always be sure, particularly 
in small work, that the pieces are scarfed to a 
point, and not merely flattened out. The greatest 
difficulty with this weld is to have the points of 
the pieces well welded, as they cool very rapidly 
after leaving the fire. The first blows, after stick- 
ing the pieces together, should cover the points. 
The weld should be made square at first and then 
rounded. The weld is not so apt to split while 
being hammered if welded square and then worked 
round, as it would be if hammered round at first. 

If the scarf were made wide on the end like 
the ordinary lap-weld, it would be necessary to 
hammer clear around the bar in order to close 
down the weld; but with the pointed scarf, one 
blow on each point will stick the work in place, 
making it much more quickly handled. 

Ring Weld, Round Stock. A ring formed from 
round stock may be made in two ways; that is, 
by scarfing before or after bending into shape. 
When scarfed before bending, the length of stock 
should be carefully calculated, a small amount 

Fig. 31. 

being added for welding, and the ends upset and 
scarfed exactly the same as for a round lap-weld. 



3° 



FORGE- PRACTICE. 



Care should be taken to see that the scarfs come 
on opposite sides of the piece. 

Fig. 31 shows a piece of stock scarfed ready for 
bending. 

After scarfing, the piece should be bent into 

a ring and welded, care 
being taken when bend- 
ing to see that the points 
of the scarf lie as indi- 
cated at A, Fig. 32, and 
not as shown at B. 

When the points of 
the scarfs are lapped as 
shown at A, most of the 
welding may be done 
while the ring lies fiat on 
the anvil, the shaping 
being finished over the 
horn. If the points are 
*, the welding also must 
be done over the horn, making it much more awk- 
ward to handle. 

The second way of welding the ring is practically 
the same as that of making a chain link, and the 
same description of scarfing will answer for both, 
the stock being cut and bent into a ring, with the 
ends a little distance apart; these ends are then 
scarfed the same as described below for a link 
scarf and welded in exactly the same manner 
as described for making the other ring. 

Chain-making. — The first step in making a link 
is to bend the iron into a U-shaped piece, being 




Fig. 32. 
lapped the other way, 



WELDING. 3 1 

careful to keep the legs of the U exactly even in 
length. The piece should be gripped at the lower 
end of the U, the two ends brought to a high heat, 
scarfed, bent into shape together, reheated, and 
welded. 

To scarf the piece place one end of the U on the 
anvil, as shown in Fig. 33, and strike one blow on 
it ; move it a short distance in the direction shown 
by the arrow and strike another blow. This 
should be continued until the edge or corner of 
the piece is reached, moving it after each blow. 



^ 




Fig. 33. Fig. 34. 

This operation leaves a series of little steps on 
the end of the piece, and works it out in a more 
or less pointed shape, as shown in Fig. 34. 

This scarf may be finished by being brought 
more to a point by a few blows over the horn of 
the anvil. The ends should then be bent together 
and welded. Fig. 35 shows the steps in making 
the link and two views of the finished link. The 
link is sometimes left slightly thicker through 
the weld. A second link is made — all but welding — ■ 
spread open, and the first link put on it, closed 
up again, and welded. A third is joined to this 
etc. 

When made on a commercial scale, the links are 



32 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



not scarfed but bent together and welded in one 
heat. 




Fig. 35. 
Ring, or Band. — A method of making a ring from 




Fig. 36. 

flat iron is shown in Fig. 36, which shows the 
stock before and after bending into shape. 



WELDING. 23 

The stock is cut to the correct length, upset, 
and scarfed exactly the same as for a flat lap-weld. 
The piece is bent into shape and welded over the 
horn of the anvil. The ring must be heated for 
welding very carefully or the outside lap will 
burn before the inside is hot enough to weld. 

In scarfing this — as in making other rings — care 
must be taken to have the scarfs come on opposite 
sides of the tock. 

Washer, or Flat Ring. — In this weld flat stock 
is used bent edgewise into a ring without any 
preparation. The corners of the ends are trimmed 
off parallel after the stock is bent as shown in 
Fig- 37- 





Fig. 37. Fig. 38. 

After trimming the ends are scarfed with a 
fuller or pene end of a hammer and lapped ready 
for welding (Fig. 38). 

When heating for welding, the ring should be 
turned over several times to insure uniformity in 
heating. 

If the work is particular, the ends of the stock 
should be upset somewhat before bending into 
shape. 



34 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Butt-weld. — This is a weld where the pieces 
are butted together without any slanting scarfs, 
leaving a square joint through the weld. 

When two pieces are so welded the ends should 
be slightly rounded, simillar to Fig. 39, which 
shows two pieces ready for welding. If the ends 
are convex as shown, the scale and other impurity 
sticking to the metal is forced out of the joint. 
If the ends were concave this matter would be 



Fig. 39. Fig. 40. 

held between the pieces and make a poor weld. 
The pieces are welded by being struck on the ends 
and driven together. This, of course, upsets the 
metal near the weld and leaves the piece something 
like Fig. 40, showing a slight seam where the 
rounded edges of the ends join. This upset part 
is worked down to size at a welding heat, leaving 
the bar smooth. 

A butt-weld is not as safe or as strong as a lap- 
weld. 

When the pieces are long enough they may be 
welded right in the fire. This is done by placing 
the pieces in the fire in the proper position for 
welding; a heavy weight is held against the pro- 
jecting end of one piece — to "back it up" — and 
the weld is made by driving the pieces together 
by hammering on the projecting end of the second 
piece. As soon as the work is "stuck," the weld 




WELDING. 3 5 

is taken from the fire and finished on the 
anvil. 

Jump Weld. — Another form of butt-weld, Fig. 41, 
is the "jump" weld, which, 
however, is a form which should 
be avoided as much as possible, 
as it is very liable to be weak. 
When making a weld like this, the 
piece which is to be "jumped," 
or "butted," on to the other FlG - 4*- 

piece should have its end upset in such a way as 
to flare out and form a sort of flange the wider 
the better. When the weld is made, this flange — 
indicated by the arrow — can be welded down with a 
hammer, or set-hammers, and make a fairly strong 
weld. 

Split Weld; Weld for very Thin Steel. — Very thin 
stock is sometimes difficult to join with the ordi- 
nary lap -weld for the reason that the stock is so 
thin that if the pieces are taken from the fire at the 
proper heat they will be too cold to weld before 
they can be properly placed together on the anvil. 

This difficulty is somewhat overcome by scarfing 
the ends, similar to Fig. 42. The ends are tapered 




Fig. 42. 

to a blunt edge and split down the center for half an 
inch or so, depending on the thickness of stock. 
One half of each split end is bent up, the other 



36 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



down; the ends are pushed tightly together and 
the split parts closed down on each other, as shown 




Fig. 43. 

in Fig. 43. The joint may then be heated and 
welded. 

This is a weld sometimes used for welding spring 
steel,' or iron to steel. 

Split Weld; Heavier Stock. — A split weld for 
heavier stock is shown ready for welding in Fig. 




Fig. 44. 




Fig. 45- 




Fig. 46. 



45, Fig. 44 showing the two pieces before they are 
put together. In this weld the ends of the pieces 
are first upset and then scarfed, one piece being 



WELDING. 3 7 

split and shaped into a Y, while the other has its 
end brought to a point with the sides of the bar 
just back of the point bulging out slightly as shown 
at A and B. This bulge is to prevent the two 
pieces from slipping apart. 

When properly shaped the two pieces are driven 
together and the sides, or lips, of the Y-shaped 
scarf closed down over the pointed end of the other 
piece. The lips of the Y should be long enough to 
lap over the bulge on the end of the other piece 
and thus prevent the two pieces from slipping apart. 
The pieces are then heated and welded. Care must 
be taken to heat slowly, that the pointed part may 
be brought to a welding heat without burning the 
outside piece. Borax, sand, or some other flux 
should be used. (Sometimes the faces of the scarfs 
are roughened or notched with a chisel, as shown in 
Fig. 46, to prevent the pieces from slipping apart.) 

This is the weld that is often used when welding 
tool-steel to iron or mild steel. 

Sometimes the pieces are heated separately to a 
welding heat before being placed together. Good 
results may be obtained this way when tool-steel is 
welded to iron or mild steel, as the tool-steel welds 
at a much lower temperature than either wrought 
iron or mild steel, and if the two pieces are heated 
separately, the other metal may be raised to a much 
higher temperature than the tool-steel. 

Angle Weld. — In all welding it should be remem- 
bered that the object of scarfing is to so shape the 
pieces to be welded, that they will fit together and 
form a smooth joint when properly hammered. 



3« 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



Frequently there are several equally good methods 
of scarfing for the same sort of weld, and it should 
be remembered that the method given here is not 
necessarily the only way in which the particular 
weld can be made. 

Fig. 47 shows one way of 
scarfing for a right-angle weld 
made of flat iron. Both pieces 
are scarfed exactly alike. The 
scarfing is done with the pene 
end of the hammer. If neces- 
sary the ends of the pieces 
may be upset before scarfing. 

As in all other welds, care 
must be taken to so shape the 
scarfs that when they are placed 
together- they will touch in the 
center, and not around the edges, thus leaving an 
opening for forcing out the impurities which collect 
on the surfaces to be welded. 




Fig. 47. 




Fig. 48. 
"T" Weld. — A method of scarfing for a 
weld is illustrated in Fig. 48. 



rr\ > > 



WELDING. 



39 



The stem, A, should be placed on the bar, B, 
when welding in about the position shown by the 
dotted line on B. 

"T" Weld, Round Stock. — Two methods of 
scarfing for a " T " weld made from round stock are 
shown in Fig. 49. 




Fig. 49. 



The scarfs are formed mostly with the pene end 
of the hammer. 

The illustration will explain itself. The stock 
should be well upset in either method. 

Welding Tool - steel. — The general method of 
scarfing is the same in all welding ; but when tool- 
steel is to be welded, either to itself or to wrought 
iron or mild steel, more care must be used in the 
heating than when working with the softer metals 
alone. 

The proper heat for welding tool-steel — about a 
bright yellow — can only be learned by experiment. 
If the tool-steel is heated until the sparks fly, a 
light blow of the hammer will cause it to crumble 
and fall to pieces. 



4-0 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

When welding mild steel or wrought iron to tool- 
steel, the tool-steel should be at a lower heat than 
the other metal, which should be heated to its reg- 
ular welding heat. 

The flux used should be a mixture of about one 
part sal ammoniac and four parts borax. 

Tool-steel of high carbon, and such as is used for 
files, small lathe tools, etc., can seldom be welded to 
itself in a satisfactory manner. What appears to 
be a first-class weld may be made, and the steel 
may work up into shape and seem perfect — may, in 
fact, be machined and finished without showing 
any signs of the weld — but when the work is hard- 
ened, the weld is almost certain to crack open. 

Spring steel, a lower carbon steel, may be satis- 
factorily welded if great care be used. 



CHAPTER III. 

CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES. 

Calculating for Angles and Simple Bends. — It is 

often necessary to cut the stock for a forging as 
nearly as possible to the exact length needed. This 
length can generally be easily obtained by meas- 
ment or calculation. 

About the simplest case for calculation is a plain 
right-angle bend, of which the piece in Fig. 50 will 
serve as an example. 

This piece as shown is a simple right-angle bend 
made from stock 1" through, 8" long on the outside 
of each leg. 



Fig. 50. 



Ml 



Fig. 51. 



Suppose this to be made of wood in place of iron. 
It is easily seen that a piece of stock 1" thick and 
15" long would make the angle by cutting off 7" 

41 



42 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

from one end and fastening this piece to the end of 
the 8" piece, as shown in Fig. 51. 

This is practically what is done when the angle is 
made of iron — only, in place of cutting and fasten- 
ing, the bar is bent and hammered into shape. 

In other words, any method which will give the 
length of stock required to make a shape of uniform 
section in wood, if no allowance is made for cutting 
or waste, will also give the length required to make 
the same shape with iron. 

An easier way — which will serve for calculating 
lengths of all bent shapes — is to measure the length 
of an imaginary line drawn through the center of 
the stock. Thus, if a dotted line should be drawn 
through the center of stock in Fig. 50, the length of 
each leg of this line would be 7 J", and the length of 
stock required 15", as found before. 

No matter what the shape when the stock is left 
of uniform width through its length, this length of 
straight stock may always be found by measuring 
the length of the center line on the bent shape. 
This may be clearly shown by the following experi- 
ment. 

Experiment to Determine Part of Stock which 
Remains Constant in Length while Bending. — Sup- 
pose a straight bar of iron with square ends be 
taken and bent into the shape shown in Fig. 52. If 

the length of the bar be 
measured on the inside 
edge of the bend and then 
FlCr - 5 2 - on the outside, it will be 

found that the inside length is considerably shorter 




CALCULATION OP STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES 43 

than the outside; and not only this, but the inside 
will be shorter than the original bar, while the out- 
side will be longer. The metal must therefore 
squeeze together or upset on the inside and 
stretch cr draw out on the outside. If this is the 
case, as it is, there must be some part of the bar 
which when it is bent neither squeezes together nor 
draws out, but retains its original length, and this 
part of the bar lies almost exactly in the center, as 
shown by the dotted line. It is on this line of the 
bent bar that the measuring must be done in order 
to determine the original length of the straight 
stock, for this is the only part of the stock which 
remains unaltered in length when the bar is bent. 

To make the explanation a little clearer, suppose 
a bar of iron is taken, polished on one side, and lines 
scratched upon the surface, as shown in the lower 
drawing of Fig. 53, and this bar then bent into the 
shape shown in the upper drawing. Now if the 
length of each one of these lines be measured and 
the measurements compared with the length of the 
same lines before the bar was bent, it would be 
found that the line A A, on the outside of the bar, 
had lengthened considerably; the line BB would 
be somewhat lengthened, but not as much as A A ; 
and CC would be lengthened less than BB. The 
line 00, through the center of the bar, would meas- 
ure almost exactly the same as when the bar was 
straight. The line DD would be found to be 
shorter than 00 and FF shorter than any other. 
The line 00, at the center of the bar, does not 
change its length when the bar is bent; conse- 



44 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



quently, to determine the length of straight stock 
required to bend into any shape, measure the 




E 



1-94- 



i.- 



r 



Fig. 53. 



Fig. 54. 



length of the line following the center of the stock 
of the bent shape. 

As another example Fig. 54 will serve. 

Suppose a center line be drawn, as shown by the 
dotted line. As the stock is 1" thick, the length of 
the center line of the part A will be 5", at B 8", 
C 5", D 2", E 3^", and the total length of stock 
required 21^". 

A convenient form for making calculations is as 
follows : 

A = s" 
B = W 

C=5" 

E=3¥' 

Total. . . 21^" = length of stock required. 

Curves. Circles. Methods of Measuring. — On cir- 
cles and curves there are several different methods 
which may be employed in determining the length 
of stock, but the same principle must be followed 



CALCULATION OF STOCK TOR BENT SHAPES. 45 

in any case — the length must be measured along 
the center line of the stock. 

One way of measuring is to lay off the work full size. 
On this full-size drawing lay a string or thin, easily 
bent wire in such a way that it follows the shape 
of the bend through its entire length, being careful 
that the string is laid along the center of the stock. 

The string or wire may then be straightened and 
the length measured directly. 

Irregular shapes or scrolls are easily measured in 
this way. 

Another method of measuring stock for scrolls, 
etc., is to step around a scroll with a pair of dividers 
with the points a short distance apart, and then lay 
off the same number of spaces in a straight line and 
measure the length of that line. This is of more 
use in the drawing-room than in the shop. 

Measuring-wheel. — Still another way of measuring 
directly from the drawing is to use a 
light measuring-wheel, similar to 
the one shown in Fig. 55, mounted 
in some sort of a handle. This is a 
thin light wheel generally made 
with a circumference of about 
24". The side of the rim is some- 
times graduated in inches by 
eighths. To use it, the wheel is 
placed lightly in contact with the 
line or object which it is wished 
to measure, with the zero-mark on FlG - 55- 

the wheel corresponding to the point from which 
the measurement is started. The wheel is then 




46 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

pushed along the surface following the line to be 
measured, with just pressure enough to make it 
revolve. By counting the revolutions made and 
setting the pointer or making a mark on the wheel 
to correspond to the end of the line when it is 
reached, it is an easy matter to push the wheel over 
a straight line for the same number of revolutions 
and part of a revolution as shown by the pointer 
and measure the length. If the wheel is gradu- 
ated, the length run over can of course be read 
directly from the figures on the side of the wheel. 

Calculating Stock for Circles. — On circles and parts 
of circles, the length may be calculated mathe- 
matically, and in the majority of cases this is prob- 
ably the easiest and most accurate method. This 
is done in the following way : The circumference, or 
distance around a circle, is equal to the diameter 
multiplied by 3} (or more accurately, 3. 141 6). 

As an illustration, the length of stock required to 
bend up the ring in Fig. 56 is calculated as follows: 
The inside diameter of the ring is 6" and the 
stock 1" in diameter. The length must, of course, 
be measured along the center 
of the stock, as shown by 
the dotted line. It is the 
diameter of this circle, made 
by the dotted line, that is 
used for calculating the 
length of stock; and for 
convenience this may be 
Fig. 56. called the "calculating" di- 

ameter, shown by C in Fig. 56. 




CALCULATION OF STOCK TOR BENT SHAPES. 



47 



The length of this calculating diameter is equal 
to the inside diameter of the ring with one-half the 
thickness of stock added at each end, and in this 
case would be \" + 6" + £" = 7". 

The length of stock required to make the ring 
would be 7" Xs\ = 22 ,r ; or, in other words, to find 
the length of stock required to make a ring, multi- 
ply the diameter of the ring, measured from center 
to center of the stock, by 31=. 

Calculating Stock for " U's." — Some shapes may 
be divided up into straight lines and parts of circles 
and then easily calculated. Thus 
the U shape in Fig. 57 may be 
divided into two straight sides and 
a half -circle end. The end is half of 
a circle having an outside diameter 
of 3^". The calculating diameter of 
this circle would be 3", and the 
length of stock required for an entire 
circle this size 3X3^ = 9!, which for 
we may call of", as this is near enough for ordinary 
work. As the forging calls for only half a circle, 
the length needed would be 9!" ^r^ = 4\^ ,r . 

As the circle is 3^" outside diameter, half of this 
diameter, or if", must be taken from the total 
length of the U to give the length of the straight 
part of the sides ; in other words, the distance from 
the line A to the extreme end of the U is half the 
diameter of the circle, or if". This leaves the 
straight sides each ^\" long, or a total length for 
both of 8^". The total stock required for the 
forging would be : 




Fig. 57. 
convenience 



4 8 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



Total 



Length stock for sides 8^" 

" " end 411" 

" " " Urging i 3 - 2 V'. 




Link. — As another example, take the link shown 
in Fig. 58. This may be divided into the two semi- 
circles at the ends and the 
two straight sides. Calcu- 
lating as always through 
the center of the stock, 
there are the two straight 
sides 2" long, or 4", and the 
FlG - s 8 - two semicircular ends, or 

one complete circle for the two ends. The length 
required for these two ends would be \\" X3y" = 
\\" = \ x " , or, nearly enough, 4}^". The total length 
of the stock would be 4" + 4}^" = 81^", to which 
must be added a slight amount for the weld. 

Double Link. — The double link in Fig. 59 is an- 
other example of stock calculation. Here there 
are two complete circles each hav- 
ing an inside diameter of •£", and, 
as they are made of \" stock, a 
' ' calculating ' ' diameter of 1 " . The 
length of stock required for one side 
would be 3.1416" X 1" = 3.1416", 
and the total length for complete 
links 3.i4i6 // X2 // = 6.2832 // , which is about 6\" '. 

As a general rule it is much easier to make the 
calculations with decimals as above and then 
reduce these decimals to eighths, sixteenths, etc. 




Fig. 59. 



CALCULATION OF STOCK TOR BENT SHAPES. 49 

Use of Tables.. — To aid in reduction a table of 
decimal equivalents is given on p. 249. By using 
this table it is only necessary to find the decimal 
result and select the nearest sixteenth in the table. 
It is generally sufficiently accurate to take the 
nearest sixteenth. 

A table of circumferences of circles is also given; 
and by looking up the diameter of any circle the 
circumference may be found opposite. 

To illustrate, suppose it is necessary to find the 
amount of stock required to make a ring 6" inside 
diameter out of f " round stock. This would make 
the calculating diameter of the ring 6f . 

In the table of circumferences and areas of circles 
opposite a diameter 6| is found the circumference 
21.206. In the table of decimal equivalents it will 
be seen that ^ 6 - is the nearest sixteenth to the deci- 
mal .206; thus the amount of stock required is 
2\-^" . This of course makes no allowance for 
welding. 

Allowance for Welding. — Some allowance must 
always be made for welding, but the exact amount 
is very hard to determine, as it depends on how 
carefully the iron is heated and how many heats 
are taken to make the weld. 

The only stock which is really lost in welding, 
and consequently the only waste which has to be 
allowed for, is the amount which is burned off or 
lost in scale when heating the iron. 

Of course when preparing for the weld the ends 
of the piece are upset and the work consequently 
shortened, and the pieces are still farther shortened 



50 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

by overlapping the ends in making the weld; but 
all this material is afterward hammered back into 
shape so that no loss occurs here at all, except of 
course the loss from scaling. 

A skilled workman requires a very small allow- 
ance for waste in welding, in fact sometimes none 
at all; but by the beginners an allowance should 
always be made. 

No rules can be given; but as a rough guide on 
small work, a length of stock equal to from one- 
fourth to three-fourths the thickness of the bar will 
probably be about right for waste on rings, etc. 
When making straight welds, when possible it is 
better to allow a little more than is necessary and 
trim off the extra stock from the end of the finished 
piece. 

Work of this kind should be watched very closely 
and the stock measured before and after welding in 
order to determine exactly how much stock is lost 
in welding. In this way an accurate knowledge is 
soon obtained of the proper allowance for waste. 



CHAPTER IV. 

UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 

Drawing Out. — When a piece of metal is worked 
out, either by pounding or otherwise, in such a way 
that the length is increased, and either the width or 
thickness reduced, we say that the metal is being 
" drawn out," and the operation is known as " draw- 
ing out." 

It is always best when drawing out to heat the 
metal to as high a heat as it will stand without 
injury. Work can sometimes be drawn out much 
faster by working over the horn of the anvil than on 
the face, the reason being this: when a piece of 
iron is laid flat on the anvil face and hit a blow with 
the hammer, it flattens out and spreads both length- 
wise and crosswise, making the piece longer and 
wider. The piece is not wanted wider, however, 
but only longer, so it is necessary to turn it on edge 
and strike it in this position, when it will again in- 
crease in length and also in thickness, and will have 
to be thinned out again. A good deal of work thus 
goes to either increasing the width or thickness, 
which is not wanted increased; consequently this 
work and the work required to again thin the forg- 
ing are lost. In other words, when drawing out 
iron on the face of the anvil the force of the blow is 

5i 



52 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



expended in forcing the iron sidewise as well as 
lengthwise, and the work used in forcing the iron 
sidewise is lost. Thus only about one half the 
force of the blow is really used to do the work 
wanted. 

Suppose the iron be placed on the horn of the 




Fig. 60. 



anvil, as shown in Fig. 60, and hit with the hammer 
as before. The iron will still spread out sidewise a 
little, but not nearly as much as before and will 
lengthen out very much more. The horn in this 
case acts as sort of a blunt wedge, forcing out the 
metal in the direction of the arrow, and the force of 
the blow is used almost entirely in lengthening the 
work. 

Fullers may be used for the same purpose, and 
the work held either on the horn or the face of the 
anvil. 

Drawing Out and Pointing Round Stock. — When 
drawing out or pointing round stock it should always 
be first forged down square to the required size and 
then, in as few blows as possible, rounded up. 

Fig. 61 illustrates the different steps in drawing 
out round iron to a smaller size. A is the original 



UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 



53 



bar, B is the first step, C is the next, when the iron 
is forged octagonal, and the last step is shown at D f 




Fig. 6i. 

where the iron is finished up round. In drawing 
out a piece of round iron it should first be forged 
like B, then like C, and lastly finished like D. 

As an example: Suppose part of a bar of §" 
round stock is to be drawn down to f " in diameter. 
Instead of pounding it down round and round until 
the f " diameter is reached, the part to be drawn out 
should be forged perfectly square and this drawn 
down to |", keeping it as nearly square as possible 
all the time. 

The corners of the square are forged off, making 
an octagon, and, last of all, the work is rounded up. 
This prevents the metal from splitting, as it is very 
liable to do if worked round and round. 




Fig. 62. 



Fig. 63. 



The reason for the above is as follows: Suppose 
Fig. 62 represents the cross-section of a round bar 



54 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

as it is being hit on the upper side. The arrows 
indicate the flow of the metal — that is, it is forged 
together at AA and apart at BB. Now, as the bar 
is turned and the hammering continued, the out- 
side metal is forced away from the center, which 
may, at last, give way and form a crack; and by 
the time the bar is of the required size, if cut, it 
would probably look something like Fig. 63. 

The same precaution must be taken when forging 
any shaped stock down to a round or conical point. 
The point must first be made square and then 
rounded up by the method given above. If this is 
not done the point is almost sure to split. 

Squaring Up "Work. — A common difficulty met 
with in all drawing out, or in fact in all work which 
must be hammered up square, is the liability of the 
bar to forge into a diamond shape, or to have one 
corner projecting out too far. If a section be cut 
through a bar misshaped in this way, at right angles 
to its length, instead of being a square or rectangle, 
the shape will appear something like one of the out- 
lines in Fig. 64. 




XL. 



Fig. 65. 

To remedy this and square up the bad corners, 
lay the bar across the anvil and strike upon the 
projecting corners as shown in Fig. 65, striking in 
such a way as to force the extra metal back into the 



UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 55 

body of the bar, gradually squaring it off. Just as 
the hammer strikes the metal it should be given a 
sort of a sliding motion, as indicated by the arrow. 

No attempt should be made to square up a corner 
of this kind by simply striking squarely down upon 
the work. The hammering should all be done in 
such a way as to force the metal back into the bar 
and away from the corner. 

Upsetting. — When a piece of metal is worked in 
such a way that its length is shortened, and either 
or both its thickness and width increased, the piece 
is said to be upset; and the operation is known as 
upsetting. 

There are several ways of upsetting, the method 
depending mostly on the shape the work is in. With 
short pieces the work is generally stood on end on 
the anvil and the blow struck directly on the upper 
end. The work should always be kept straight; 
after a few blows it will probably start to bend and 
must then be straightened before more upsetting is 
done. 

If one part only of a piece is to be upset, then the 
heat must be confined to that part, as the part of 
the work which is hottest will be upset the most. 

When upsetting a short piece for its entire length, 
it will sometimes work up like Fig. 66. This may 
be due to two causes: either the ends were hotter 
than the center or the blows of the hammer were 
too light. To bring a piece of this sort to uniform 
size throughout, it should be heated to a higher heat 
in the center and upset with heavy blows. If the 
work is very short it is not always convenient to 



56 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

confine the heat to the central part; in such a case, 
the piece may be heated all over, seized by the tongs 
in the middle and the ends cooled, one at a time, in 
the water-bucket. 





Fig. 66. Fig. 67. 

When light blows are used the effect of the blow 
does not reach the middle of the work, and conse- 
quently the upsetting is only done on the ends. 

The effect of good heating and heavy blows is 
shown in Fig. 67. With a heavy blow the work is 
upset more in the middle and less on the ends. 

To bring a piece of this kind to uniform size 
throughout, one end should be heated and upset 
and then the other end treated in the same way, 
confining the heat each time as much as possible 
to the ends. 

Long work may be upset by laying it across the 
face of the anvil, letting the heated end extend two 
or three inches over the edge, the upsetting being 
done by striking against this end with the hammer 
or sledge. If the work is heavy the weight will 
offer enough resistance to the blow to prevent the 
piece from sliding back too far at each blow; but 
with lighter pieces it may be necessary to "back 
up" the work by holding a sledge against the un- 
heated end. 



UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 57 

Another way of upsetting the ends of a heavy 
piece is to " ram ' ' the heated end against the side of 
the anvil by swinging the work back and forth hori- 
zontally and striking it against the side of the anvil. 
The weight of the piece in this case takes the place 
of the hammer and does the upsetting. 

Heavy pieces are sometimes upset by lifting them 
up and dropping or driving them down on the face 
of the anvil or against a heavy block of iron resting 
on the floor. Heavy cast-iron plates are sometimes 
set in the floor for this purpose, and are called 
' ' upsetting-plates. ' ' 

Fig. 68 shows the effect of the blows when upset- 
ting the end of a bar. The lower piece has been 
properly heated and upset with 
heavy blows, while the other 
piece shows the effect of light 
blows. This last shape may also 
be caused by having the extreme 
end at a higher heat than the rest 
of the part to be upset. FlG - 68 - 

Punching. — There are two kinds of punches used 
for making holes in hot metal — the straight hand- 
punch, used with a hand-hammer, and the punch 
made from heavier stock and provided with a 
handle, used with a sledge-hammer. 

Punches should, of course, be made of tool-steel. 

For punching small holes in thin iron a hand- 
punch is ordinarily used. This is simply a bar of 
round or octagonal steel, eight or ten inches long, 
with the end forged down tapering, and the extreme 
end the same shape, but slightly smaller than the 




53 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



hole which is to be punched. Such a punch is 
shown in Fig. >6a . The punch should taper uni- 
formly, and the extreme end should be perfectly 
square across, not in the least rounding. 



eg 




Fig. 69. 



Fig. 70. 



For heavier and faster work with a helper, a 
punch like Fig. 70 is used. This is driven into the 
work with a sledge-hammer. 

A, B, and C, in Fig. 71, show the different steps 
in punching a clean hole through a piece of hot iron. 




Fig. 71. 

The punch is first driven about half-way through 
the bar while the work is lying flat on the anvil ; 
this compresses the metal directly underneath the 
punch and raises a slight bulge on the opposite side 
of the bar by which the hole can be readily located. 
The piece is then turned over and the punching 
completed from this side, the small piece, ".4", 
being driven completely through. This leaves a 



UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 59 

clean hole ; while if the punching were all done from 
one side, a burr, or projection, would be raised on 
the side where the punch came through. 

D and E (Fig. 71) illustrate the effects of proper 
and improper punching. If started from one side 
and finished from the other the hole will be clean 
and sharp on both sides of the work; but if the 
punching is done from one side only a burr will be 
raised, as shown at E, on the side opposite to that 
from which the punching is done. 

If the piece is thick the punch should be started, 
then a little powdered coal put in the hole, and the 
punching continued. The coal prevents the punch 
from sticking as much as it would without it. 

Bending. — Bends may be roughly divided into two 
classes — curves and angles. 

Angles. — In bending angles it is nearly always 
necessary to make the bend at some definite point 
on the stock. As the measurements are much easier 
made while the stock is cold than when hot, it is 
best to "lay off" the stock before heating. 

The point at which the bend is to be made should 
be marked with a center punch — generally on the 
edge of the stock, in preference to the side. 

Marking with a cold chisel should not be done 
unless done very lightly on the edge of stock. If a 
slight nick be made on the side of a piece of stock to 
be bent, and the stockbent at this point with the 
nick outside, the small nick will expand and leave 
quite a crack. If the nick be on the inside, it is apt 
to start a bad cold shut which may extend nearly 
through the stock before the bending is finished. 



6o 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



Whenever convenient, it is generally easier to 
bend in a vise, as the piece may be gripped at the 
exact point where the bend is wanted. 

When making a bend over the anvil the stock 
should be laid flat on the face, with the point at 




Li 



Fig. 72. 

which the bend is wanted almost, but not quite, up 
to the outside edge of the anvil. 

The bar should be held down firmly on the anvil 
by bearing down on it with a sledge, so placed that 
the outside edge of the sledge is about in line with 
the outside edge of the anvil. 

This makes it possible to make a short bend with 
less hammering than when the sledge is not used. 

The bar will pull over the edge of the anvil 
slightly when bending. 

Bend with Forged Corner. — Brackets and other 



s 



forgings are sometimes made with 
the outside corner of the bend 
forged up square, as shown in 

Fig. 73- 

There are several ways of 
bending a piece to finish in this 
Fig. 73. shape. 

One way is to take stock of the required finished 



UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 6 1 

size and bend the angle, forging the corner square 
as it is bent; another is to start with stock consid- 
erably thicker than the finished forging and draw 
down both ends to the required finished thickness, 
leaving a thin-pointed ridge across the bar at the 
point where the bend will come, this ridge forming 
the outside or square corner of the angle where the 
piece is bent ; or this ridge may be formed by upset- 
ting before bending. 

The process in detail of the first method men- 
tioned is as follows : The first step is to bend the bar 
so that it forms nearly a right angle, keeping the 
bend as sharp as possible, as shown at .4 (Fig. 74). 





Fig. 74. 

This should be done at a high heat, as the higher 
the heat the easier it is to bend the iron and conse- 
quently the sharper the bend. 

Working the iron at a good high heat, as before, 
the outside of the bend should be forged into a 
sharp corner, letting the blows come in such a way 
as to force the metal out where it is wanted, being 
careful not to let the angle bend so that it becomes 
less than a right angle or even equal to one. Fig. 



62 FORGE-PR A.CTICE. 

74, B, shows the proper way to strike. The arrows 
indicate the direction of the blows. 

The work should rest on top of the anvil while 
this is being done, not over one corner. If worked 
over the corner, the stock will be hammered too 
thin. 

The object in keeping the angle obtuse is this: 
The metal at the corner of the bend is really being 
upset, and the action is somewhat as follows: In 
Fig. 75 is shown the bent piece on the anvil. We 
will suppose the blows come on the part A in the 
direction indicated by the heavy arrow. The 
metal, being heated to a high soft heat at C, upsets, 
part of it forming the sharp outside corner and 
part flowing as shown by the small arrow at C and 




Fig. 75. Fig. 76 

making a sort of fillet on the inside corner. If in 
place of having the angle greater than 90 degrees it 
had been an acute angle (Fig. 76), the metal forced 
downward by the blows on ,4 would carry with it 
part of the metal on' the inside of the piece B, and 
a cold shut or crack would be formed on the inside 
of the angle. To form a sound bend the corner 
must be forged at an angle greater than a right 
angle. When the piece has been brought to a sharp 




UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 63 

corner the last step is to square up the bend over 
the corner, or edge, of the anvil. 

The second way of making the above is to forge 
a piece as shown in Fig. 77, 
where the dotted lines indi- 
cate the size of the original 
piece. This piece is then 
bent in such a way that the 
ridge, C, forms the outside FlG - 77- 

sharp corner of the angle. 

This ridge is sometimes upset in place of being 
drawn out. 

The first method described is the most satisfac- 
tory. 

Ring-bending. — In making a ring the first step 

of course is to calculate and cut from the bar the 

proper amount of stock. The bend should always 

be started from the end of the piece. For ordinary 

rings up to 4" or 5" in diameter the stock should 

be heated for about one-half its length. To start 

bending, the extreme e'nd of the piece should be 

first bent over the horn of the anvil, and the bar 

should be fed across the horn of the anvil and bent 

down as it is pushed forward. Do 

~^H not strike directly on top of the 

_- — ^Z-=-~^j horn, but let the blows fall a little 

f J way from it, as in Fig. 78. This 

Fig 78 bends the iron and does not pound 

it out of shape. One-half of the 

ring is bent in this way and then the part left 

straight is heated. This half is bent up the same 

as the other, starting from the end exactly as before. 



64 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 




Eye-bending. — The first step in making an eye 

like Fig. 79 is to calculate the 

amount of stock required for the 

bend. The amount required in this 

case, found by looking up the circum- 

Fig. 79. ference of a 2" circle in the table, is 

*l\":. This distance should be laid off by making 

a chalk-mark on the face of the anvil 7^" from the 

left-hand end. 

A piece of iron is heated and laid on the anvil with 
the heated end on the chalk-mark, the rest of the 
bar extending to the left. A hand-hammer is held 
on the bar with the edge of the hammer directly in 
line with the end of the anvil. This measures off 
7^" from the edge of the hammer to the end of the 
bar. The bar is then laid across the anvil bringing 
the edge of the hammer exactly in line with the 
outside edge of the anvil, thus leaving 7^" project- 
ing over the edge. This projecting end is bent 
down until it forms a right angle. The extreme 
end of this bent part is then bent over the horn into 



1st 



^ [ 



2nd 



3rd 




V^> 



Fig. 80. 



4th 




the circular shape and the bending continued until 
the eye is formed. 



UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 



65 



The same general method as described for bend- 
ing rings should be followed. The different steps 
are shown in Fig. 80. 

If an eye is too small to close 
up around the horn, it may be 
closed as far as possible in 
this way, and then completely 
closed over the corner or on 
the face of the anvil, as shown 
in Fig. 81. 

Double Link. — Another good FlG - 8l - 

example of this sort of bending is the double link, 
shown in Fig. 59. 

The link is started by bending the stock in the 
exact center, the first step being to bend a right 
angle. This step, with the succeeding ones, is 
shown in Fig. 82. 




2nd 



1st 



3rd 





Fig. 82. 



After this piece has been bent into a right angle, 
the ring on the end should be bent in the same way 



66 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

as an ordinary ring ; excepting that ajl the bending 
is done from one end of the piece, starting from the 
extreme end as usual. 

Twisting. — Fig. 83 shows the effects produced by 
twisting stock of various shapes — square, octagonal, 




Fig. 83. 

and flat, the shapes being shown by the cuts in 
each case. 

To twist work in this way it should be brought to 
a uniform heat through the length intended to 
twist. When the bar is properly heated it should 
be firmly gripped with a pair of tongs, or in a vise, 
at the exact point where the twist is to commence. 
With another pair of tongs the work is taken hold 
of where the twist is to stop, and the bar twisted 
through as many turns as required. The metal 
will of course be twisted only between the two pairs 
of tongs, or between the vise and the tongs, as the 
case may be; so care must be used in taking hold 
of the bar or the twist will be made at the wrong 
points. 

The heat must be the same throughout the part 
to be twisted. If one part is hotter than another, 



UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 



67 



this hotter part, being softer, will twist more easily, 
and the twist will not be uniform. If one end of 
the bar is wanted more tightly twisted than the 
other, the heat should be so regulated that the part 
is heated hottest that is wanted tightest twisted; 
the heat gradually shading off into the parts wanted 
more loosely twisted. 

Reverse Twisting. — The effect shown in Fig. 84 
is produced by reversing the direction of twisting. 




Fig. 84. 



A square bar is heated and twisted enough to 
give the desired angle. It is then cooled, in as 
sharp a line as possible, as far as B, and twisted 
back in the opposite direction. It is again heated, 
cooled up to A, and twisted in the first direction; 
and this operation is continued until the twist is of 
the desired length. 



CHAPTER V. 

SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 

Twisted Gate-hook. — This description answers, of 
course, not only for this particular piece, but for 
others of a like nature. 

Fig. 85 shows the hook to be made. To start 
with, it must be determined what length of stock, 




Fig. 85. 

after it is forged to proper size, will be required to 
bend up the ends. 

The length of straight stock necessary should, of 
course, be measured through the center of the 
stock on the dotted lines in the figure. To do this 
lay out the work full size, and lay a string or thin 
piece of soft wire upon the lines to be measured. 
It is then a very easy matter to straighten out the 
wire or string, and measure the exact length re- 
quired. If the drawing is not made full size, an 
accurate sketch may be made on a board, or other 
flat surface, and the length measured from this. 



SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 



69 



The hook as above will require about 2\" length 
for stock; the eye, about 2f". 
The first step would be like Fig. 86. 



^_ 



t< 2%--- 



,_±* 



Fig. 86. 

After cutting the piece of i \ ,r square stock, start 
the forging by drawing out the end, starting from 
the end and working back into the stock until a 
piece is forged out 2§" long and \" in diameter. 
Now work in the shoulder with the set -hammer in 
the following way: 

Forming Shoulders: Both Sides — One Side. — Place 
the piece on the anvil in such a position that 
the point where the shoulder is wanted comes 
exactly on the nearest edge of the anvil. Place 
the set-hammer on top of the piece in such a way 
that its edge comes directly in line with the edge of 
the anvil (Fig. 87). Do not place the piece like 



Fig 87. 



Fig 83. 



Fig. 88, or the result will be as shown — a shoulder 
on one side only. As the shoulder is worked in the 
piece should be turned continually, or the shoulder 



70 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

will work in faster on one side than on the other. 
Always be careful to keep the shoulder exactly even 
with the edge of the anvil. 

When the piece is formed in the proper shape on 
one end, start the second shoulder 4" from the first, 
and finish like Fig. 86. Bend the eye and then the 
hook; and, lastly, put the twist in the center. 
Make the twist as follows: 

First make a chalk-mark on the jaws of the vise, 

so that when the end of the hook is even with the 

mark the edge of the vise will be where one end of 

the twist should come. Heat the part to be twisted 

to an even yellow heat (be sure 

that it is heated evenly) ; place 

it in a vise quickly, with the end 

even with the mark; grasp the 

piece with the tongs, leaving the 

^ distance between the tongs and 

Fig. 89. ° 

vise equal to the length of twist 
(Fig. 89) ; and twist it around one complete turn. 

The eye should be bent as described before, and 
the hook bent in the same general way as the eye. 

Grab-hooks. — This is the name given to a kind 
of hooks used on chains, and made for grabbing or 
hooking over the chain. The hook is so shaped that 
the throat, or opening, is large enough to slip eas- 
ily over a link turned edgewise, but too narrow to 
slip down off this link on to the next one, which, of 
course, passes through the first link at right angles 
to it. 

Grab-hooks are made in a variety of ways, one of 
which is given below in detail. 




SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 



71 



Fig. 90 will serve as an example. To forge this, 
use a bar of round iron large enough in section to 
form the heavy part of the hook. This bar should 
first be slightly upset, either by ramming or ham- 
mering, for a short distance from the end, and then 
flattened out like Fig. 91. 





Fig. 90 



Fig. 92. 



Fig. 93. 



The next step is to round up the part for the eye, 
as shown in Fig. 92, by forming it over the corner of 
the anvil as indicated in Fig. 93. The eye should 
be forged as nearly round as possible, and then 
punched. 

Particular attention should be paid to this point. 
If the eye is not properly rounded before punching, 
it is difficult to correct the shape afterward. 

After punching, the inside corners of the hole are 
rounded off over the horn of the anvil in the man- 
ner shown in Fig. 94. Fig. 95 shows the appear- 
ance of a section of the eye as left by the punch. 
When the eye is finished it should appear as though 
bent up from round iron — that is, all the square 
corners should be rounded off as shown in Fig. 96. 

When the eye is completed the body of the hook 



72 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



should be drawn out straight, forged to size, and 
then bent into shape. Care should be taken to 





Fig. 94. 



Fig. 95. Fig. 96. 



keep the hook thickest around the bottom of the 
bend. 

As the stock is entirely formed before bending, 
the length of the straight piece must be carefully 

k A measured, as indicated 

at A (Fig. 97), where 
the piece is shown ready 
G ' 97 ' for bending. To deter- 

mine the required length the drawing or sample 
should be measured with a string or piece of flexible 
wire, measuring along the center of the stock, from 
the extreme point to the center of the eye. 

The weakest point of almost any hook is in the 
bottom bend. When the hook is strained there is 
a tendency for it to straighten out and take the 
shape shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 90. To 
avoid this the bottom of the hook must be kept as 
thick as possible along the line of strain, which is 
shown by the line drawn through the eye. A good 
shape for this lower bend is shown in the sketch, 
where it will be noticed that the bar has been ham- 
mered a little thinner in order to increase the thick- 
ness of the metal in the direction of the line of 
strain. 



SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 73 

The part of the hook most liable to bend under a 
load is the part lying between the points marked 
/and J in Fig. 102. 

Another style of grab-hook is shown in Fig. 98, 




Fig. 98. 

which shows the finished hook and also the straight 
piece ready for bending. 

The forming will need no particular description. 
The hook shown is forged about f" thick; the out- 
side edge around the curve being thinned out to 
about \" , in order to give greater stiffness in the 
direction of the strain. 

Stock about •§" X 1" is used. 

A very convenient way to start the eye for a hook 
of this kind, or in fact almost any forged eye, is 
shown in Fig. 99. Two fullers, top and bottom, 
are used, and the work shaped as shown. The bar 
should be turned, edge for edge, between every few 
blows, if the grooves are wanted of the same depth. 
After cutting the grooves the edge is shaped the 
same as described above. 

A grab-hook, sometimes used on logging-chains, 
is shown in Fig. 100. This is forged from square 



74 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



'stock by flattening and forming one end into an eye 
and pointing the other end; after which the hook 
is bent into shape. 





Fig. 99. 



Fig. 100 



Welded Eye-hooks. — Hooks sometimes have the 
eye made by welding instead of forging from the 
solid stock. Such a hook is shown in Fig. 10 1, 




Fig. 



which also shows the stock scarfed and bent into 
shape ready for closing up the eye for the weld, and 
also the eye ready for welding. Before heating for 
the weld, the eye should be closed, and stock at the 
end be bent close together. The scarf should be 
pointed the same as for any other round weld. 



SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 



75 



accepted shape for 



This sort of eye is not as strong as a forged eye 
of the same size ; but is usually as strong as the rest 
of the hook, as the eye is generally considerably 
stronger than any other part. 

Ho" sting-hooks. — A widely 
hoisting-hooks, used on 
cranes, etc., is shown in 
Fig. 1 02. The shape and 
formula are given by Henry 
R. Town, in his Treatise on 
Cranes. 

T = working load in tons 
of 2000 lbs. 

A = diameter of round 
stock used to form hook. 

The size of stock to use 
for a hook to carry any 
particular load is given below. The capacity of 
the hook, in tons, is given in the upper line — the 
figures in the lower line, directly under any particu- 
lar load in the upper line, giving the size of bar 
required to form a hook to be used at that load. 




Fig. 



T — 1 1 

1 — 8 4 

A—Sl l-i 



T l t 3 
1 4 i S 



4 5 6 8 



IO 



2i 2 1 3i 



The other dimensions of the hook are found by 
the following formula, all the dimensions being in 
inches : 

D= . 5 T +1.25 

E= .6 4 7"+i.6 

F= .33T+ .85 



76 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

G= . 7S D 
0= . 3 6 3 r+.66 
Q= .647+1.6 
H=i,o8A 

J-1.2A 

K=i.i^A 
L=i.o$A 

AT= .85S-.16 
U= .S66A 

To illustrate the use of the table, suppose a hook 
is wanted to raise a load of 500 lbs. 

In the line marked T in the table are found the 
figures \, denoting a load of one-quarter of a ton, or 
500 lbs. Under this are the figures \\, giving the 
size stock required to shape the hook. 

The different dimensions of the hook would be 
found as follows : 

D = .S X^ + iV/^iVs". 
E=.64X 1 / 4 + i.6"=i.j6 = i 3 //' about. 

H = i.o8A = 1.08 X u / 10 = .74 = 7 4 about. 
/= i.33A = 1.33 X u / 16 = .915 = 29 /s2 about - 

When reducing the decimals, the dimensions 
which have to do only with the bending of the hook, 
that is, the opening, the length, the length of point, 
etc., may be taken as the nearest 16th, but these 
dimensions for flattening should be reduced to the 
nearest 3 2d on small hooks. 



SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 77 

The complete dimensions for the hook in ques- 
tion, iooo lbs. capacity, would be as follows : 

£>=i 3 / 8 " G=i" H=»//' L = 2s / 32 " 

E=i s / 4 " 0= -//' / = 29 / 32 " M-"/.," 

#=*/*" ^=v 16 " 

Bolts. — Bolts are made by two methods, upset- 
ting and welding. The first method is the more 
common, particularly on small bolts, where it is 
nearly always used, the stock being upset to 
form the head. In the second method the head is 
formed by welding a ring of stock around the stem. 

An upset head is stronger than a welded head, 
provided they are both equally well made. 

The size of the bolt is always given as the diame- 
ter and length of the shank, or stem. Thus, a 
\" bolt, 6" long, means a bolt having a shank \" in 
diameter, and 6" long from the under side of the 
head to the end. 

Dimensions of bolt-heads are determined from 
the diameter of the shank, and should always be 
the same size for the same diameter, being inde- 
pendent of the length. 

The diameter and thickness of the head are meas- 
ured as shown in Fig. 103. 

The dimensions of both square and hexagonal 
heads are as follows: 

D = diameter of head across the flats (short 
diameter) . 

T = thickness of head. 

5 = diameter of shank of bolt. 



78 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



T=S. 

For a 2" bolt the dimensions would be calcu- 
lated as follows : 

Diameter of head would equal \\" X2 /, + |" = 

0/8 • 

Thickness of head would be 2" . 

These are dimensions for rough or unfinished 
heads; each dimension of a finished head is V 16 " 
less than the same dimension of the rough head. 





KJ 



Fig. \ox. 



Bolts generally have the top corners of the head 
rounded or chamfered off (Fig. 103). This can 
be done with a hand-hammer, or with a cupping- 




<o> 



C 




Fig. 104. Fig. 105. 

tool (Fig. 104), which is simply a set-hammer with 
the bottom face hollowed out into a bowl or cup 
shape. 



SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 79 

For making bolts one special tool is required, 
the heading-tool. This is commonly made some- 
thing the shape of Fig. 105, although for a "hurry- 
up" bolt sometimes any flat strip of iron with a 
hole punched the proper size to admit the stem of 
the bolt can be used. 

When in use this tool is placed on the anvil 
directly over the square hardie-hole, the stem of 
the bolt projecting down through the heading-tool 
and hardie-hole while the head is being forged on 
the bolt. 

This heading-tool is made with one side of the 
head flush with the handle, the other side project- 
ing a quarter of an inch or so above it. The tool 
should always be used with the flat side on the anvil. 

Upset -head Bolt. — An upset head is made as fol- 
lows : The stock is first heated to a high heat for a 
short distance at the end, and upset as shown at 
Fig. 106. The bolt is then dropped a 
through the heading tool, the up- f— ] 
set portion projecting above. This 
upset part is then flattened down 
on the tool as shown at B, and 
forged square or hexagonal on the 
anvil. FlG - Io6 - 

The hole in the heading-tool should be large 
enough to allow the stock to slip through it nearly 
up to the upset portion. 

Welded-head Bolts. — A welded-head bolt is made 
by welding a ring of square iron around the shank 
to form the head, which is then shaped in a heading- 
tool the same as an upset head. A piece of square 




So 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



iron of the proper size is bent into a ring, but not 
welded. About the easiest way to do this is to take 
a bar several feet long, bend the ring on the end, and 
then cut it off as shown in Fig. 107. 




W 



Fig. 107. 



This ring is just large enough, when the ends are 
slightly separated, to slip easily over the shank. 

The shank is heated to about a welding heat, the 
ring being slightly cooler, and the two put together 
as shown in Fig. 107, B. The head is heated and 
welded, and then shaped as described above. 

When welding on the head it should be hammered 
square the first thing, and not pounded round and 
round. It is much easier to make a sound weld by 
forging square. 

Care must be used when taking the welding heat 
to heat slowly, otherwise the outside of the ring will 
be burned before the shank is hot enough to stick. 

It is sometimes necessary when heating the bolt- 
head for welding to cool the outside ring to prevent 
its burning before the shank has been heated suffi- 
ciently to weld ; to do this put the bolt in the water 



SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 8 1 

sideways just far enough to cool the outside edge of 
the ring and leave the central part, or shank, hot. 

Tongs. — Tongs are made in a great variety of 
ways, several of which are given below. 

Common flat-jaw tongs, such as are used for 
holding stock up to about f inch thick, may be 
made as follows: Stock about f inch square 
should be used. This is first bent like A, Fig. 
1 08. To form the eye the bent stock is laid 




Fig. 108. 



across the anvil in the position shown at B, and 
flattened by striking with a sledge the edge of the 
anvil, forming the shoulder for the jaw. A set- 
hammer may be used to do this by placing the 
piece with the other side up, flat on the face of the 
anvil, and holding the set-hammer in such a way as 
to form the shoulder with the edge of the hammer, 
the face of the hammer flattening the eye. 



82 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

The long handle is drawn out with a sledge, 
working as shown at C. When drawing out work 
this way the forging should always be held with 
the straight side up, the corner of the anvil forming 
the sharp corner up against the shoulder on the 
piece. If the piece be turned the other side up, 
there is danger of striking the projecting shoulder 
with the sledge and knocking the work out of shape. 

For finishing up into the shoulder a set-hammer 
or swage should be used, and the handles should 
be smoothed off with a flatter, or between top and 
bottom swages. The jaw may be flattened as 
shown at D. 

The inside face of the jaw should be slightly 
creased with a fuller, as this insures the tongs grip- 
ping the work firmly with the sides of the jaws, and 
not simply touching it at one point in the center, as 
they sometimes do if this crease is not made. 

After the tongs have been shaped, and are fin- 
ished in every other way, the hole for the rivet 
should be punched. The rivet should drop easily 
into the hole. The straight end of the rivet should 
be brought to a high heat, the two parts of the 
tongs placed together with the holes in line, the 
rivet inserted, and the end "headed up." Most of 
the heading should be done with the pene end of 
the hammer. After riveting the tongs will prob- 
ably be rather ' ' stiff ' ' ; opening and shutting them 
several times, while the rivet is still red-hot, will 
leave them loose. The tongs should be finished 
by fitting to a piece of stock of the size on which 
they are to be used. 



SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 



83 



Light Tongs. — Tongs may be made from flat stock 
in the following way : A cut is made with a narrow 
fuller at the right distance from the end of the bar 
to leave enough stock to form the jaw between the 
cut and the end, as shown at A, Fig. 109. 




^^=7 



Fig. 109. 



This end is bent over as shown at B and a second 
fuller cut made, shown at C, to form the eye. The 
other end of the bar is drawn out to form the handle, 
as indicated by the dotted lines. The jaw is shaped, 
the rivet-hole punched, and the tongs finished, as 
at D, in the usual way. 

Tongs of this character may be used on light 
work. 

Tongs for Round Stock. — - Tongs for holding 
round stock may be made by either of the above 
methods, the operations 
in making being the 
same, with the exception 
of shaping the jaws> 
which may be done in 
this way: A top fuller 
and bottom swage are Fig- no- 

used, the swage being of the size to which it is 
wished to finish the outside of the jaws, the fuller 




©4 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

the size of the inside. The jaw is held on the swage, 
and the fuller placed on top and driven down on 
it, Fig. no, forcing the jaw to take the desired 
shape, shown at .4. The final fitting is done as 
usual, after the jaws are riveted together. 

Welded Tongs. — Tongs with welded handles are 
made in exactly the same way as those with solid, 
drawn-out handles excepting that, in place of draw- 
ing out the entire length of the handle, a short stub 
only is forged, a few inches long, and to this is 
welded a bar of round stock to form the handle. 
Fig. in shows one ready for welding. 



Fig. hi. 

Pick-up Tongs. — No particular description is 
necessary for making pick-up tongs. The tongs 
may be drawn out of a flat piece and bent as 
shown in Fie. 112. 



J\_ 



V 



Fig. 112. 



Bolt-tongs. — Bolt-tongs are easily made from 
round stock, although square may be used to 
advantage. 

The first operation is to bend the bar in the shape 



SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 



85 



shown in Fig. 113. This may be done with a fuller 
over the edge of the anvil, as shown at A. When 
bending the extreme end of the jaw the bar should 
be held almost level at first, and gradually swung 
down, as shown by the arrow, until the end is prop- 
erly bent. 





Fig. 113. 



Fig. 114. 



The eye may be flattened with the set-hammer, 
and the part between the jaw proper and the eye 
worked down to shape over the horn and on the 
anvil with the same tool. 

The jaw proper is rounded and finished with a 
fuller and swage, as shown in Fig. 114. 

There is generally a tendency for the spring of 
the jaw to open up too much in forging. This 
may be bent back into shape either on the face of 
the anvil, as shown at A (Fig. 115), or over the 
horn, as at B. 

Another method of making the first bend, when 
starting the tongs, is shown in Fig. 116. A swage- 
block and fuller are here used; a swage of the 



86 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



proper size could of course be used in place of the 
block. 





Fig. 



Fig. 116. 



Ladle. — A ladle, similar to Fig. 117, may be 
made of two pieces welded together, one piece 
forming the handle, the other the bowl. 

A square piece of stock of the proper thickness 
is cut and "laid out" (or marked out) like Fig. 
118; the center of the piece be.ng first found by 
drawing the diagonals. 




Fig. 117. 



Fig. iiS. 



A circle is drawn as large as possible, with its 
center on the intersection of the diagonals; the 
piece is cut out with a cold chisel to the circle, 
excepting at the points where projections are left 
for lips and for a place to weld on the handle. This 
latter projection is scarfed and welded to the strip 
forming the handle. 



SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 



87 



The bowl is formed from the circular part by 
heating it carefully to an even yellow heat and 
placing it over a round hole in a swage-block or 
other object. The pene end of the hammer is used, 
and the pounding done over the hole in the swage- 
block. As the metal in the center is forced down- 
ward by the blow of the hammer, the swage-block 
prevents the material at the sides from following 
and is gradually worked into a bowl shape. 

Fig. 119 shows the position of the block and the 
piece when forging. 

The bowl being shaped properly, the lips should 
be formed, and the top of the bowl ground off true. 





Fig. 119. 



Fig. 120. 



The lips may be formed by holding the part 
where the lips are to be against one of the smaller 
grooves in the side of the swage-block, and driving 
it into the groove by placing a small piece of round 
iron on the inside of the bowl as shown in Fig. 120. 

For a ladle with a bowl 3^" in diameter, the diam- 
eter of the circle, cut from the flat stock, should be 
about 4", as the edges of the piece draw in some- 
what. Stock for other sizes should be in about 
the same proportion. Stock should be about \" 
thick 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 




Fig. 



Machine-steel should be used for making the 
bowl. If ordinary wrought iron is used, the metal 
is liable to split. 

Bowls. — Bowls, and objects of similar shape, 
may be made in the manner described above, but 
care must be used not to do too much hammering in 
the center of the stock, as that is the part most 
liable to be worked too thin. 

Chain-stop. — The chain-stop, shown in Fig. 121, 
will serve as an example of a very numerous class 

of forgings ; that is, forg- 
H ' - — ings having a compara- 

tively large projection 
on one side. 

Care should be taken 
to select stock, for pieces 
of this sort, that will work into the proper shape with 
the least effort. The stock should be as thick as 
the thickest part of the forging, 
and as wide as the widest part. 
Stock, in this particular case, 
should be i"Xi|". 

The different steps in making 
the forging are shown in Fig. 
122. First two cuts are made 
i\" apart, as shown at A ; then 
these cuts are widened out with 
a fuller, B. The ends are then 
forged out square, as at C. To 
finish the piece the hole is 
punched and rounded and the 
round. 




Fig. 122. 
ends finished 



SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 



8 9 



When the fuller is used it should be held 
slightly slanting, as shown in 
Fig. 123. 

This forces the metal toward 
the central part and leaves a 
more nearly square shoulder, in 
place of the slanting shoulder 
that would be left were the fuller to be held exactly 
upright. 




Fig. 123. 



CHAPTER VI. 



CALCULATION OF STOCK; AND MAKING OP 
GENERAL FORGINGS. 

Stock Calculations for Forged Work. — When cal- 
culating the amount of stock required to make a 
forging, when the stock has its original shape 
altered, there is one simple rule to follow: Calcu- 
late the volume of the forging, add an allowance 
for stock lost in forging, and cut a length of stock 
having the total volume. In other words, the 
forging contains the same amount, or volume, of 
metal, no matter in what shape it may be, as the 
original stock; an allowance of course being made 



f 



■£ 



B U, 



n 



& 



**> 



-m- — *- 



-5%fo r 



Fig. 124. 

for the slight loss by scaling, and for the parts cut 
off in making. 

Take as an example the forging shown in Fig. 
124, to determine the amount of stock required to 

90 



CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORGINGS. 9 1 

make the piece. This forging could be made in 
much the same way as the chain-stop. A piece of 
straight stock would be used and two cuts made 
and widened with a fuller, in the manner shown 
in Fig. 125. The ends on either side of the cuts 



roc 



XJ IZ 



Fig. 125. 

are then drawn down, to size, as shown by the 
dotted lines, the center being left the size of the 
original bar. The stock should be \" X i", as these 
are the dimensions of the largest parts of the forg- 
ing. For convenience in calculating the forging 
may be divided into three parts: the round end 
A, the central rectangular block B, and the square 
end C. 

The block B will of course require just 2" of 
stock. 

The end C has a volume of \" X \" X3"=f of a 
cubic inch. 

The stock (f Xi") has a volume of f Xi" 
X 1" =■§■ of a cubic inch for each inch of length. 

To find the number of inches of stock required to 
make the end C, the volume of this end (f cubic 
inch) should be divided by the volume of one inch 
of. stock (or J cubic inch). Thus, f -h| = 1 \" . 

It will therefore require \\" of stock to make 
the end C\ with allowance for scaling, if". 

The end A is really a round shaft, or cylinder, 
4" long and \" in diameter. To find the volume 



92 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

of a cylinder, multiply the square of half the diame- 
ter by 3V7, an< i then multiply this result by the 
length of the cylinder. 

The volume of .4 would be 1 / i X 1 / i X 3 i / 1 X 4 = ' l / u . 
And the amount of stock required to make A would 
be 11 / li + 1 / 2 = i i / 1 " in length, which is practically 
equal to 1 5 / 8 . To the above amount of stock must 
be added a small amount for scaling, allowing alto- 
gether about i 3 //'. 

The stock needed for the different parts of the 
forging is as follows : 

Round shaft A if" 

Block B 2" 

Square shaft C if" 

Total 5f" 

First taking a piece of stock i"Xi"X5f", the 
cuts would be made for drawing out the ends as 
shown in Fig. 125. 

In such a case as the above it is not always neces- 
sary to know the exact amount of stock to cut. 
What is known to be more than enough stock to 
make the forging could be taken, the central block 
made the proper dimensions, the extra metal 
worked down into the ends, and then trimmed of! 
to the proper length. There are frequently times, 
however, when the amount of material required 
must be calculated accurately. 

Take a case like the forging shown in Fig. 126. 
Here is what amounts to two blocks, each 2"X4" 
X6", connected by a round shaft, 2" in diameter. 



CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORGINGS. 



93 



To make this, stock 2" thick and 4" wide should 
be used, starting by making cuts as shown in Fig. 



& 



-6 ^ 



-24- 



P 



Fig. 126. 



127, and drawing down the center to 2" round. 
It is of course necessary to know how far apart to 



4\_ 



Sf 






Fig. 127. 

make the cuts when starting to draw down the 
center. 

The volume of a cylinder 2" in diameter and 
24" long would be i"X i"X3 l / 1 "X2j\.' f = 75 3 / 7 cubic 
inches, which maybe taken as 7 5 1 / 2 cubic inches. 
For each inch in length the stock would have a 
volume of 4"X2"Xi"=8 cubic inches. There- 
fore it would require 75 1 / 2 -^- 8 =9 7 / 16 inches of stock 
to form the central piece; consequently the dis- 
tance between cuts, shown at A in Fig. 127, would 
have to be 0. 7 '/ \" '. Each end would require 6" of 
stock, so the total stock necessary would be 

6" + 6"-f97i6" = 2i7 16 ". 

Any forging can generally be separated into sev- 
eral simple parts of uniform shape, as was done 
above, and in this form the calculation can be 



94 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

easily made, if it is always remembered that the 
amount of metal remains the same, and in forging, 
merely the shape, and not the volume, is altered. 

Weight of Forgings. — To find the weight of any 
forging, the volume may first be found in cubic 
inches, and this volume multiplied by .2779, the 
weight of wrought iron per cubic inch. (If the 
forging is made of steel, multiply by .2836 in place 
of .2779.) This will give the weight in pounds. 

Below is given the weight of both wrought and 
cast iron and steel, both in pounds per cubic inch 
and per cubic foot. 

Lbs. per Lbs. per 

Cu. Ft. Cu. In. 

Cast iron weighs 450 .2604 

Wrought iron weighs. . 480 -2779 

Steel weighs 490 -2936 

Suppose it is required to find the weight of the 
forging shown in Fig. 124. We had a volume in 
A of n / 14 cubic inch, in C of 3 / 4 cubic inch, and in 
5 of 1 cubic inch, making a total of 2 15 /, 8 cubic 
inches. If the forging were made of wrought iron, 
it would weight 2 15 / 28 X.2 779 = .7 of a pound. 

The forging shown in Fig. 126 has a volume in 
each end of 48 cubic inches, and in the center of 
75 f cubic inches, making a total of 17 if cubic 
inches, and would weigh, if made of wrought iron, 
47.64 pounds. 

A much quicker way to calculate weights is to 
use a table such as is given on page 250. As steel 
is now commonly used for making forgings, this 



CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 95 

table is figured for steel. The weight given in the 
table is for a bar of steel of the dimensions named 
and one foot long. Thus a bar i" square weighs 
3.402 lbs. per foot, a bar 3i"Xi" weighs 11.9 lbs. 
per foot, etc. 

To calculate the weight of the forging shown in 
Fig. 126, proceed as follows: Each end is 2"X4" 
and 6" long, so, as far as weight is concerned, equal 
to a bar 4" X2" and 12" long. From the table, 
a bar 4" Xi" weighs 13.6 lbs. for each foot in 
length; so a bar 4"X2", being twice as thick, 
would weigh twice as much, or 27.2 lbs., and as 
the combined length of the two ends of the forging 
is one foot, this would be their weight. The table 
shows that a bar 2" in diameter weighs 10.69 lbs. 
for every foot in length; consequently the central 
part of the forging, being 2 ft. long, would weigh 
10.69X2, or 21.38 lbs. The total weight of the 
entire forging would be 48.58 lbs. (This seems to 
show a difference between this weight and the 
weight as calculated before, but it must be remem- 
bered that before the weight was calculated for 
wrought iron, while this calculation was made for 
steel.) 

Finish. — Some forgings are machined, or "fin- 
ished," after leaving the forge-shop. As the draw- 
ings are always made to represent the finished 
work, and give the finished dimensions, it is neces- 
sary to make an allowance for this finishing when 
making the forging, and all parts which have to 
be "finished," or "machined," must be left with 
extra metal to be removed in finishing. 



9 6 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



The parts required to be finished, are generally- 
marked on the drawing; sometimes the finished 
surfaces have the word finish marked on them; 
sometimes the finishing is shown simply by the 
symbol /, as used in Fig. 128, showing that the 
shafts and pin only of the crank are to be finished. 



in 



Fig. i2i 



When all surfaces of a piece are to be finished 
the words finish-all-over are sometimes marked 
on the drawing. 

The allowance for finish on small forgings is gen- 
erally about y^ on each surface ; thus if a block 
were wanted to finish 4"X2"Xi", and l / 16 " were 
allowed for finishing, the dimensions of the forging 

shouldbe 4 1 8 // X2|"Xir- 

On a forging like Fig. 126, about %" allowance 
should be made for finish, if it were called for; 
thus the diameter of the central shaft would be 
2 \", the thickness of the ends 2 \", etc. On larger 
work \" is sometimes allowed for machining. 

The amount of finish allowed depends to a large 
extent on the way the forging is to be finished. If 
it is necessary to finish by filing the forging should 
be made as nearly to size as possible, and having 
a very slight amount for finish, 1 / 32 // i or even V 
being enough in some cases. 



64 > 



CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORGINGS. 



97 



It is of course necessary to take this into account 
when calculating stock, and the calculation made 
for the forging with the allowance for finish added 
to the drawing dimensions and not simply for the 
finished piece. 

Crank-shafts. — There are several methods of 
forging crank-shafts, but only the common com- 
mercial method will be given here. 

When forgings were mostly made of wrought iron, 
cranks were welded up of several pieces. One 
piece was used for each of the end shafts, one piece 
for each cheek, or side, and another piece for the 
crank-pin. Mild-steel cranks are now more uni- 
versally used and forged from one solid piece of 
stock. The drawing for such a crank is given in_ 
Fig. 128; finish to be allowed only as shown, that 
is, only on crank-pin and shafts. The forgings, as 
made, will appear like the outlines in Fig. 129. 
The metal in the throat of the crank is generally 
removed by drilling a line of holes and then sawing 
slots where the sides of the crank cheeks should 
come, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 129. 



sh- 



(JOCVYOOJ 



-*£- 



% 



Fig. 129. 



The central block is then easily knocked out. This 
drilling and sawing are done in the machine-shop. 
This throat can be formed by chopping out the 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



surplus metal with a hot chisel, but on small cranks, 
such as here shown, it is generally cheaper in a well- 
equipped shop to use the first method. 

The first step is to calculate the amount of stock 
required. Stock 1^X4" should be used. The 
ends, A and B, should be left i\" in diameter to 
allow for finishing. The end A contains 10.13 
cubic inches. Each inch of stock contains 6 cubic 
inches. It would therefore require 1.7" of stock 
to form this end provided there were no waste from 
scale in heating. This waste does take place, and 
must be allowed for, so it will be safe to take about 
2" of stock for this end. B contains 5.22 cubic 
inches, and would require .87" of stock without 
allowance for scale. About i|-" should be taken. 
The stock should then be h ]\" long. The first step 
is to make cuts \\" from one end and 1" from the 
other, and widen out these cuts with a fuller, as 
shown in Fig. 130. 





Fig. 130. 



Fig. 131. 



These ends are then forged out round in the man- 
ner illustrated in Fig. 131.' The forging should be 
placed over the corner of the anvil in the position 
shown, the blows striking upon the corner of the 
piece as indicated. As the end gradually straightens 



CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORGINGS. 



99 



out, the other end of the piece is slowly raised into 
the position shown by the dotted lines and the 
shaft hammered down round and finished up be- 
tween swages. 

Care must be taken to spread the cuts properly 
before drawing down the ends, otherwise a bad 
cold-shut will be formed. If 
the cuts are left without spread- 
ing, the metal will act some- 
what after the manner shown 
in Fig. 132. The top part of 
the bar, as it is worked down, 
will gradually fold over, leav- 
ing, when hammered down to F^. 132. 
size, a bad cold-shut, or crack, such as illustrated 
in Fig. 132. When the metal starts to act this way, 
as shown by the upper sketch in 132, the fault may 
be remedied by trimming off the corner along the 
dotted line. This must always be done as soon as 
any tendency to double over is detected. 

Double-throw Cranks. — Multiple-throw cranks are 



/ 



-&-* 



_^. 



Fig. 133. 



first forged flat, rough turned, then heated and 
twisted into shape. 

The double-throw crank, shown in Fig. 133, 



L< 



IOO FORGE-PRACTICE. 

would be first forged as shown in Fig. 134 ; the parts 
shown dotted would then be cut out with the drill 
and saw, as described above. 

After the pins and shafts have been rough turned 
— that is, turned round, but left as large as possi- 



jX»y_v> 


1 1 

! ! 

tacrxd 
f 1 


iCK-irjlKvi), 

1 




B A 

Fig. 134. 





ble — the crank is returned to the forge-shop, where 
it is heated red-hot and twisted into the finished 
shape. 

When twisting, the crank is gripped just to one 
side of the central bearing, as shown by the dotted 
line A. This may be done with a vise or wrench, 
if the crank is small, or the crank may be placed 
on the anvil of a steam-hammer and the hammer 
lowered down on it to hold it in place. 

The other end of the crank is gripped en the line 
B and twisted into the required shape. 




Fig. 



i35- 



A wrench of the shape shown in Fig. 135 is very 
convenient for doing work of this character. It 



CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORGINGS. IOI 

may be formed by bending a U out of flat stock, 
bent edgewise, and welding on a handle. 

Three-throw Crank. — Fig. 136 shows what is 
known as a "three-throw" crank. The forging for 




Fig. 136. 

this is first made as shown by the solid lines in Fig. 
137. The forging is drilled and sawed in the 



-J* 



-6J^- 



SH'- 



-2H- 



-**- 



Fig. 137. 

machine-shop to the dotted lines, and pins rough 
turned, being left as large as possible. The forging 
is returned to the forge-shop, heated, and bent into 
the shape of the finished crank. It is then sent 
to the machine-shop and finished to size. Four- 
throw cranks are also made in this manner. 

The slots are sometimes cut out in the forge-shop 
with a hot chisel, but, particularly on small work, 
it is generally more economical to have them sawed 
out in the machine-shop. This is especially so of 
multiple-throw cranks, which must be twisted. 



102 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Knuckles. — There is a large variety of forgings 
which can be classed under one head — such forg- 
ings as the forked end of a marine connecting-rod, 
the knuckle-joints sometimes used in valve-rods, 
and others of this character, such as illustrated in 
Figs. 139, 140, 141, E. 



^ 




Fig. 141. 



Connecting-rod End. — Fig. 138 shows the shaped 
end often used on the crank end of connecting- 
rods. The method of forming this is the same as 
the first step in forging the other pieces above men- 
tioned. 

The stock used for making this should be as wide 



CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORGINGS. 



IO3 




zS 



as B and somewhat more than twice as thick as A. 
The first step is to make two 
fuller cuts as shown at A, Fig. 

142, using a top and bottom 
fuller and working in both 
sides at the same time. When 
working in both sides of a bar 
this way, it should be turned 
frequently, bringing first one 
side, then the other, upper- 
most. In this way the cuts 
will be worked to the same 
depth on both sides, while if 
the work is held in one posi- 
tion, one cut will generally be 
deeper than the other. After 
the cuts are made, the left- 
hand end of the bar is drawn 
out to the proper size and the 
right-hand end punched and split like B. Some- 
times when the length D, Fig. 138, is compara- 
tively short and the stock wide, instead of being 
punched and split, the end of the bar is cut out, as 
shown at C, Fig. 142, with a right angle or curved 
cutter. 

The split ends are spread out into the position 
shown at D, and drawn down to size over the cor- 
ner of the anvil, in the manner illustrated in Fig. 

143. These ends are then bent back into the 
proper position for the finished forging. Gener- 
ally when the ends are worked out and bent back 
in this manner, a bump is left like that indicated 




Fig. 142. 



104 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



by the arrow-point at E, Fig. 142. This should 
be trimmed off along the dotted line. 

Knuckle. — The knuckle, Fig. 139, is started in 
exactly the same way, but after being forged out 





^fe 



Fig. 143. Fig. 144. 

straight, as above, the tips of these ends are bent 
down, forming a U-shaped loop of approximately 
the shape of the finished knuckle. A bar of iron 
of the same dimension at the inside of the finished 
knuckle is then inserted between the sides of the 
loop and the sides closed down flat over it, Fig. 
144. 

Forked-end Connecting-rod.— Fig. 140 is made in 
the same manner. The shaft 5 should be drawn 
down into shape and rounded 
up before the other end is 
split. After the split ends 
have been bent back 
straight, the shoulder A 
should be finished up with 
a fuller in the manner shown 
in Fig. 145. The rounded 
ends B-B should be formed before the piece is bent 




Fig. 145. 



CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORGINGS. 105 

into shape. The final bending can be done over a 
cast-iron block of the right shape and size if the 
forging is a large one and several of the same kind 
are wanted. 

Hook with Forked End. — Fig. 141, E is a forging 
which also conies in this general class. This is 
made from §" square stock. The end of the bar is 
first drawn down to 3 / 16 // round. This round end is 
put through the hole of a heading-tool, and the 
square part is split with a hot chisel, the cut wid- 
ened out, and the sides hammered out straight on 
the tool. The different steps are shown in Fig. 
141. 

Wrench, Open-end. — Open-end wrenches of the 
general class shown in Fig. 146 may be made in 




Fig. 146. 

several different ways. It would be possible to 
make this by the same general method followed 
for making the forked end of the connecting-rod 
described above. Ordinary size wrenches are more 
easily made in the way illustrated in Fig. 147. 

A piece of stock is used, wide enough and thick 
enough to form the head of the wrench. This is 
worked in on both sides with a fuller and the head 
rounded up as shown. A hole is then punched 
through the head and the piece cut out to form 
the opening, as shown by the dotted lines at B. 

This wrench could also be made by bending up 



io6 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



a U from the proper size flat stock and welding 
on a handle. 



V. A_ 




Fig. 147. 

The solid-forged wrench is the more satisfactory. 

Socket-wrench. — The socket-wrench, shown in 
Fig. 148, may be made in several ways. About 

the easiest, on "hurry- 
up" work, is the method 
shown in Fig. 149. Here 
a stub is shaped up the 
same size and shape as 
A ring is bent up of thin 
welded around the stub. 





Fig. 148. 



the finished hole is to be 
flat iron and this ring 




Fig. 149. 



The width of the ring should of course be equal to 
the length of the hole plus the lap of the weld. 

When finishing the socket, a nut or bolt-head 
the size the wrench is intended to fit should be 



CALCULATION OF STOCK] GENERAL FORGINGS. 



107 




Fig. 150. 



placed in the hole and the socket finished over 
this between swages. 

A better way of making wrenches of this sort is 
to make a forging having 
the same dimensions as 
the finished wrench, but 
with the socket end 
forged solid. The socket 
end should then be 
drilled to a depth slightly 
greater than the socket is 
wanted. The diameter of 
the drill should be, as 
shown in Fig. 150, equal to the shortest diameter of 
the hole. 

After drilling, the socket end is heated red-hot 
and a punch of the same shape as the intended hole 
driven into it. The end of the punch should be 
square, with the corners sharp. As the punch is 
driven in, the corners will shave off some of the 
metal around the hole and force it to the bottom 
of the hole, thus making it necessary to have the 
drilled hole slightly deeper than the socket hole is 
intended to finish. 

While punching, the wrench may be held in a 
heading tool, or if the wrench be double-ended, in a 
pair of special tongs, as shown in Fig. 150. 

Split Work. — There is a great variety of thin 
forgings, formed by splitting a bar and bending 
the split parts into shape. For convenience, these 
can be called split forgings. 

Fig. 151 is a fair sample of this kind of work. 



ioS 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



This piece could be made by taking two flat strips 
and welding them across each other, but, particu- 




Fig. 151. 



Fig. 152. 



larly if the work is very thin, this is rather a diffi- 
cult weld to make. 

An easier way is to take a flat piece of stock of 
the proper thickness and cut it with a hot chisel, 
as shown by the solid lines in Fig. 152. The four 
ends formed by the splits are then bent at right 
angles to each other as shown by the dotted lines, 
and hammered out pointed as required. 

If machine steel stock is used, it is not generally 
necessary to take any particular precautions when 




Fig. 



J 53- 



splitting the bar, but if the material used is wrought 
iron, it is necessary to punch a small hole through 



CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORGINGS. 



iog 



the bar where the end of the cut comes, to prevent 
the split from extending back too far. 

Fig. 153 shows several examples of this kind of 
work. The illustrations show in each case the 
finished piece, and also the method of cutting the 
bar. The shaded portions of the bar are cut away 
completely. 

Expanded or Weldless Eye. — Another forging of 
the same nature is the expanded eye in. Fig. 154. 







sfc^i 



5^L aV 



Fig. 154. 




Fig. 155. 



To make this, a flat bar is forged rounding on the 
end, punched and split as shown. The split is 
widened out by driving a punch*, or other tapering 
tool into it, and the forging finished by working 
over the horn of the anvil, as shown in Fig. 155. 

If the dimensions of the eye are to be very accu- 
rate, it will be necessary to make a calculation for 
the length of the cut. This can be done as follows : 
Suppose the forging, for the sake of convenience in 
calculating, to be made up of a ring 3" inside diame- 
ter and sides \" wide, placed on the end of a bar 
\\" wide. The first thing is to determine the area 
of this ring. To do this find the area of the out- 



IIO FORGE-PRACTICE. 

side circle and subtract from it the area of the 

inside circle. (Areas may be found in table, page 
243-) 

Area of outside circle =12.57 sc l- i n - 

" " inside " = 7.07 " " 

" " ring = 5.50 



(< «< 



The stock, being \\" wide, has an area of \\ 
sq. in. for every inch in length, and it will take 3§ " 
of this stock to form the ring, as we must take an 
amount of stock having the same area as the ring. 
This will be practically 3 11 / l6 ". 

The stock should be punched and split, as shown 
in Fig. 154. It will be noticed that the punch- 
holes are \" from the end, while the stock is to be 
drawn to \" . The extra amount is given to allow 
for the hammering necessary to form the eye. 

Weldless Rings. — Weldless rings can be made in 
the above way by splitting a piece of flat stock and 
expanding it into a ring, or they can be made as 
follows: The necessary volume of stock is first 
forged into a round flat disc and a hole is punched 
through the center. The hole should be large 
enough to admit the end of the horn of the anvil. 
The forging is then placed on the horn and worked 
to the desired size in the manner indicated in 
Fig. 155. Fig. 156 shows the different steps in 
the process — the disc, the punched disc, and the 
finished ring. 

Rings of this sort are made very rapidly under 
the steam-hammer by a slight modification of this 



CALCULATION OF STOCK ; GENERAL FORGINGS. I 1 1 



method. The discs are shaped and punched and 
then forged to size over a "mandril." A U- 





Fig. 156. 



Fig. 157. 



shaped rest is placed on the anvil of the steam- 
hammer, the mandril is slipped through the hole 
in the disc and placed on the rest, as shown in 
Fig. 157. The blows come directly down upon 
the top side of the ring, it being turned between 
each two blows. The ring of course rests only upon 
the mandril. As the hole increases in size, larger 
and larger mandrils are used, keeping the mandril 
as nearly as possible the same size as the hole. 

Forging a Hub, or Boss. — Fig. 158 is an example 
of a shape very often met with in machine forging: 
a lever, or some flat bar or shank, with a ' ' boss ' ' 





Fig. 158. 



Fig. 159. 



formed on one end. This may be made in two 
ways — either by doubling over the end of the bar, 
as shown in Fig. 159, and making a fagot-weld of 
sufficient thickness to form the boss, or by taking a 
bar large enough to form the boss and drawing 
down the shank. The second method will be 



112 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

described, as no particular directions are necessary 
for the weld, and after welding up the end, the 
boss is rounded up in the same way in either case. 
The stock should be large enough to form the boss 
without any upsetting. 

A bar of stock is taken, for the forging shown 
above, 2" wide and 2" thick. The first step is to 
make a cut about 2" from the end, with a fuller, 
like A, Fig. 160. 




Fig. 160. 



The stock, to the right of the cut, is then flat- 
tened down and drawn out to size, as shown at B. 
In drawing out the stock, certain precautions must 
be taken or a " cold-shut ' ' will be formed close to 
the boss. If the metal is allowed to flatten down 
into shape like Fig. C, the corner at X will over- 
lap, and work into the metal, making a crack in 
the work which will look like Fig. E. This 



CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORGINGS. 113 

is quite a common fault, and. whenever a crack 
appears in a forging close to a shoulder, it is gener- 
ally caused by something of this sort- — that is, by 
some corner or part of the metal lapping over and 
cutting into the forging. When one of these cracks 
appears, the only way to remedy the evil is to cut 
it out as shown by the dotted lines in E. For this 
purpose a hot-chisel is sometimes used, with a 
blade formed like a gouge. 

Fig. D shows the proper way to draw out the 
stock; the corner in question should be forged 
away from the boss in such a manner as to grad- 
ually widen the cut. The bar should now be 
rounded up by placing the work over the corner of 
the anvil, as shown in Fig. 161. First forge off the 




Fig. 161. 

corners and then round, up the boss in this way. 
To finish around the corner formed between the 
boss and the flat shank, a set-hammer should be 
used. Sometimes the shank is bent away from 
the boss to give room to work, and a set-hammer, 
or swage, used for rounding the boss as shown. 



ii4 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



After the boss is finished, .the shank is straightened. 
The boss should be smoothed up with a swage. 

Ladle Shank. — The ladle shank, shown in Fig. 
162, may be made in several ways. It is possible 

to make it solid without 
any welds, or the handle 
may be welded on a flat 
bar and the bar bent into 
a ring and welded, or the 
ring and handle may be 
forged in one piece and 
the ring closed together by welding. The last- 
mentioned method is as follows : The stock should 
be about 1" square. It is necessary to make a 




Fig. 162. 




Fig. 163. 

rough calculation of the amount of this size stock 
required to form the ring of the shank. If the ring 



CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. IT5 

were made of f" Xi" stock, about 2$\" would be 
required; now as i"Xi" stock is the same width 
and about two and one-half times as thick as 
f'Xi" stock, every inch of the i"Xi" will make 
about 2\" of f'Xi", consequently about g\" of 
the i" square will be required to form the ring. 

A fuller cut is made around the bar, as shown 
at A, Fig. 163. This should be made about g\" 
from the end of the bar. The left-hand end of the 
bar is drawn down to f" in diameter to form the 
handle. If the work is being done under a steam 
or power hammer, enough stock may be drawn 
out to form the entire handle, but if working on 
the anvil, it will probably be more satisfactory to 
draw out only enough stock to make a ' ' stub "4" or 
5" long. To this stub may be welded a round bar 
to form the handle. 

After drawing out the handle, the g\" square 
end of the stock is split, as shown by the dotted 
lines at B. These split ends 
are spread apart, as shown 
at C, forged into shape, and 
bent back to the position 
shown by the dotted lines. 

The ring is completed by FlG " l64 ' 

cutting the ends to the proper length, scarfing, 
bending into shape, and welding, as indicated in 
Fig. 164. 

If for any reason it is necessary to make a forg- 
ing of this kind without a weld in the ring, it may 
be done by the method shown in Fig. 165. The 
split in this case should not extend to the end of the 




n6 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



bar. About f" or \" of stock should be left uncut 
at the end. This split is widened out and the 



D 




Fig. 165. 

sides drawn down and shaped into a ring as desired. 
Starting-lever. — The lever shown in Fig. 166 is a 




Fig. 166 

shape sometimes used for levers used to turn the 

fly-wheels oi engines or other heavy wheels by 

gripping the rim. 

The method used in making the lever is shown 

in Fig. 167. The end is first drawn down round 

and the handle formed. 
The other end is then 
split, forged down to 
size, and bent at right 
angles to the handle. 
After trimming to the 
proper length, the flat 
ends are bent into shape. 
Fic " l6? " If this shaped end is 

very heavy, it may be necessary to forge it in the 



u 



-D 



CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORGINGS. 117 



shape of a solid block, as shown in Fig. 168, and 
then either work in the depression 
shown by the dotted lines, with a 
fuller and set-hammers, or the dotted 
line may be cut out with a hot-chisel. 

Moulder's Trowel. — The moulder's trowel shown 
in Fig. 169 gives an example of the method used in 



Fig. 168. 




Fig. 169. 

making forgings of a large class, forgings having a 
wide thin face with a stem, comparatively small, 
forged at one end. 

The stock to be used for the trowel shown should 
be about \" Xi". This is thick enough to allow 
for the formation of the ridge at R. 



--£X 



tb^ 



□ 



Fig. 170. 

Fig. 170 shows the general method employed. 
The forging is started by making nicks like A, with 
the top and bottom fuller. One end is drawn down 
to form the tang for the handle. This should not 



Il8 FORGE- PRACTICE. 

be forged down pointed, as required when com- 
pleted, but the entire length of handle should be 
forged square and about the size the largest part is 
required to finish to. The handle is then bent up 
at right angles, as at B, and the corner forged 
square in the same manner that the corner of a 
bracket is shaped up sharp and square on the out- 
side. 

After this corner is formed, the blade is drawn 
down to size on the face of the anvil. 

When flattening out the blade, in order to leave 
the ridge shown at R, Fig. 169, the work should 
be held as shown at C, Fig. 170. Here the handle 
is held pointing down and against the side of the 
anvil. By striking directly down on the work, and 
covering the part directly over the edge of the anvil 
with the blows, all of the metal on the anvil will be 
flattened down, leaving the metal not resting on 
the anvil unworked. By swinging the piece around 
into a reverse position the other edge of the blade 
may be thinned down. If care be taken to hold 
the trowel in the proper position while thinning 
out the blade, a small triangular-shaped piece next 
the handle will be left thicker than the rest of the 
blade. This raised part will form the ridge shown 
at R, Fig. 169. 

The same result may be obtained by placing the 
trowel, other side up, on the face of the anvil and 
using a set-hammer, or natter, to thin out the blade. 

Welded Brace. — Fig. 171 shows a form of brace, 
or bracket, sometimes used for holding swinging 
signs and for various other purposes. 



CALCULATION OP STOCK; GENERAL FORGINGS. 



II 9 



The bracket in this case is made of round stock; 
but the same method may be followed in making 
one of flat or square material. 




Fig. 171. 

The stock is first scarfed on one end and this end 
doubled over, forming a loop, as shown in Fig. 172. 




Fig. 172. 

The loop is welded and then split, the ends straight- 
ened out and flattened into the desired shape as 
illustrated. 




Fig. 173. 

Welded Fork. — The welded fork, shown in Fig. 
173, is made in the same way as the brace de- 
scribed above. 



CHAPTER VII. 



STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 



General Description of Steam-hammer. — The gen- 
eral shape of small and medium steam-hammers 

is shown in Fig. 174. 
This type is known as 
a single - frame ham- 
mer. 

The size of a steam- 
hammer is determined 
by the weight of its 
falling parts ; thus the 
term a 400-lb. ham- 
mer would mean that 
the total weight of 
the ram, hammer-die, 
and piston-rod was 400 
lbs. 

Steam-hammers are 
made in this general 
style from 200 lbs. up. 

The anvil is entire- 
ly separate from the 
frame of the hammer, 
and each rests on a 
separate foundation. 




STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 121 

The foundation for the frame generally takes the 
shape of two blocks of timber or masonry capped 
with timber — one in front and one behind the anvil 
block. The anvil foundation is placed between 
the two blocks of the frame foundation, and is 
larger and heavier. 

The object of separating the anvil and frame is to 
allow the anvil to give under a heavy blow with- 
out disturbing the frame or its foundation. 

Hammer-dies. — The dies most commonly used on 
steam-hammers have flat faces ; the upper or ham- 
mer die being the same width, but sometimes 
shorter in length than the lower or anvil die. 

Tool-steel makes the best dies, but chilled iron 
is also used to a very large extent. Sometimes, 
for forming work, even gray iron castings are used. 
Flat dies made of tool-steel are sometimes used 
without hardening. Dies made this way, when 
worn, may be faced off and used again without 
the bother of annealing and rehardening. 

For special work the dies are made in various 
shapes, the faces being more or less in the shape of 
the work to be formed. When the die-faces are 
shaped to the exact form of the finished piece, the 
work is known as drop-forging. 

Tongs for Steam-hammer "Work. — The tongs used 
for holding work under the steam-hammer should 
be very carefully fitted and the jaw^s so shaped 
that they hold the stock on all sides. Ordinary 
flat-jawed tongs should not be used, as the work 
is liable to be jarred or slip out sideways. 

Fig. 175 shows the jaws of a pair of tongs fitted 



122 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 




Fig. 175. 



to square stock. Tongs for other shaped stock 

should have the jaws 
formed in a correspond 
ing way; that is, the in- 
side of the jaws, viewed 
from the end, should have 

the same shape as the cross-section of the stock they 

are intended to hold, and should grip the stock 

firmly on at least three sides. 

Flat-jawed tongs can be easily shaped as above 

in the manner shown in Fig. 176. The tongs are 




Fig. 176. 

heated and held as shown, by placing one jaw, 
inside up, on a swage. The jaw is grooved or 
bent by driving down a top-fuller on it. After 
shaping the other jaw in the same way, the final 
fitting is done by inserting a short piece of stock of 
the proper size in the jaws and closing them down 
tightly over this by hammering. 

When fitting tongs to round stock, the finishing 



STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 



123 



may be done between swages, the stock being kept 
between the jaws while working them into shape. 

Tongs for heavy work should have the jaws 
shaped as shown in Fig. 177. When in use, tongs 
of this kind are held by 
slipping a link over the 
handles to force them to- 
gether. On very large sizes, 
this link is driven on with a 
sledge. 

To turn the work easily, 
the link is sometimes made in the shape shown iri 
Fig. 178, with a handle projecting from each end. 




Fig. 177. 



( ) 



Fig. 178. 

Hammer-chisels. — The hot-chisel used for cutting 
work under the hammer is shaped, ordinarily, like 
Fig. 179. This is sometimes made of solid tool- 




STEEL 



Fig. 179. 



J 
Fig. 180. 



steel, and sometimes the blade is made of tool-steel 
and has a wrought-iron handle welded on. Fig. 
180 shows the method of welding on the wrought- 
iron handle. 



124 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



The handle of the chisel, close up to the blade, is 
hammered out comparatively thin. This is to 
allow the blade to spring slightly without snapping 
off the handle. The hammer will always knock 
the blade into a certain position, and as the chisel 
is not always held in exactly the right way, this 
thin part of the handle permits a little "give" 
without doing any harm. 

The force of the blow is so great when cutting, 
that the edge of the chisel must be left rather 
blunt. The edge should be square across, and not 
rounding. The proper shape is shown at A, Fig. 




Fig. 181. 



181. Sometimes for special work the edge may 
be slightly beveled, as at B or C, but should never 
be shaped like D. 

Sometimes a bar is cut or nicked with a cold- 
chisel under the hammer. 
The chisel used is shaped 
like Fig. 182, being very 
flat and stumpy to resist the 
crushing effect of heavy blows. The three faces 
of the chisel are of almost equal width. 

Cutting Hot Stock. — Hot cutting is done under the 




Fig. 182. 



STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 



steam-hammer in much the same way as done on 
the anvil. 

If the chisel be held perfectly upright, as shown 
at A, Fig. 183, the cut end of the bar will be left 



Fig. 183. 

bulging out in the middle. When the end is wanted 
square the cut should be started with the chisel 
upright, but once started, the chisel should be very 
slightly tipped, as shown at B. When cutting 
work this way the cut should be made about half 
way through from all sides. When cutting off 
large pieces of square stock the chisel should be 
driven nearly through the bar, leaving only a thin 
strip of metal, \" or \" thick, joining the twc 
pieces, A, Fig. 184. The bar is then turned over 



Fig. 184. 

on the anvil and a thin bar of steel laid directly on 
top of this thin strip, as shown at B, Fig. 184. 
One hard blow of the hammer sends the thin bar 
of steel between the two pieces and completely 
cuts out the thin connecting strip of metal. This 




126 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

leaves the ends of both pieces smooth, while if the 

chisel is used for cutting 

on both sides, the end of 

one piece will be smooth 

and the other will have a 
Fig. 185. 

tin left on it. 

For cutting up into corners on the ends of slots 
bent cutters are sometimes used; such a cutter is 
shown in Fig. 185. These cutters are also made 
curved, and special shapes made for special work. 

General Notes on Steam-hammer. — When working 
under the hammer, great care should always be 
taken to be sure that everything is in the proper 
position before striking a blow. The work must 
rest fiat and solid on the anvil, and the part to be 
worked should be held as nearly as possible below 
the center of the hammer-die ; if the work be done 
under one edge or corner of the hammer-die, the 
result is a " foul ' ' blow, which has a tendency to 
tip the ram and strain the frame. 

When tools are used, they should always be held 
in such a way that the part of the tool touching 
the work is directly below the point of the tool on 
which the hammer will strike. Thus, supposing a 
piece were being cut off under the hammer, the 
chisel should be held exactly upright, and directly 
under the center of the hammer, as shown at .4, 
Fig. 186. In this way a fair cut is made. If the 
chisel were not held upright, but slantingly, as 
shown at B, the result of the blow would be as 
shown by the dotted lines, the chisel would be 
turned over and knocked flat, and, in some cases, 



STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 



127 



might be even thrown very forcibly from under 
the hammer. 

When a piece is to be worked out to any great 
extent, the blows should be heavy, and the end of 



7 v i \ 



Fig. 



the stock being hammered should bulge out slightly, 
like A, Fig. 187, showing that the metal is being 




Fig. 187. 

worked clear through. If light blows are used the 
end of the piece will forge out convex, like B, show- 
ing that the metal on the outside of the bar has 
been worked more than that on the inside. If this 
sort of work is continued, the bar will split and 
work hollow in the center, like C. 

Round shafts formed between flat dies are very 
liable to be split in this way when not carefully 
handled. 

The faces of the hammer- and anvil-dies are gen- 
erally of the same width, but not always the same 



125 JORGE-PRACTICE. 

length. Thus, when the hammer is resting on the 
anvil, the front and back sides of the two dies are 
in line with each other, while either one or both 
ends of the anvil-die project beyond the ends of 
the hammer-die. 

This is not always the case, however, as in many 
hammers the faces of the two dies are the same 
shape and size. 

Having one die face longer than the other is an 
advantage sometimes when a shoulder is to be 
formed on one side of the work only. 

When a shoulder is to be formed on both sides of 
a piece the work should be placed under the ham- 
mer in such a way that the top die will work in one 
shoulder, while the bottom die is forming the other ; 
in other words, the work should be done from the 
side of the hammer, where the edges of the dies are 
even, as shown in Fig. 188. If the shoulder is re- 
quired on one side only, as in forging tongs, the 




Fig. 188. Fig. 189. 



work should be so placed as to work in the shoulder 
with the top die, while the bottom die keeps the 
under side of the work straight, as in Fig. 189, A. 



STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 



I29 



The same object, a shoulder on one side only, 
may be accomplished by using a block, as shown 
at B, Fig. 189. The block may be used as shown, 
or the positions of work and block may be reversed 
and the work laid with flat side on the anvil and 
block placed on top. 

This method of forming shoulders will be taken 
up more in detail in treating individual forgings. 

Tools: Swages. — In general, the tools used in 
steam-hammer work, except in special cases, are 
very simple. 

Swages for finishing work up to about 3" or 4" 
in diameter are commonly made as shown in Fig. 
190. The two parts of the swage are held apart 




Fig. 190. 



by the long spring handle. This spring handle 
may be made as shown at B, by forming it of a sep- 
arate piece of stock and fastening it to the swage, 
by making a thin slot in the side of the block with 
a hot-chisel or punch, forcing the handle into this 
and closing the metal around it with a few light 
blows around the hole with the edge of a fuller. 

Another method of forming the handle (C) is to 
draw out the same piece from which the blocks are 



13° 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



made, hammering down the center of the stock to 
form the handle, and leaving the ends full size to 
make the swages. 

Swages for large work are made sometimes as 
shown in Fig. 191. The one shown at B is made 




Fig. 191. 

for an anvil-die having a square hole, similar to 
the hardie-hole in an ordinary anvil, near one end. 
The horn on the swage, at x, slips into this hole, 
while the other two projections fit, one on either 
side, over the sides of the anvil. These horns, or 
ringers, prevent the swage from slipping around 
when in use. 




Fig. 192. 

Tapering and Fullering Tool. — i\s the faces of the 
anvil- and hammer-dies are flat and parallel, it 
is not possible to finish smoothly between the bare 
dies, any work having tapering sides. 



STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 



I3 1 



By using a tool similar to the one shown in Fig. 
192 tapering work may be smoothly finished. 

Taper Work. — The use of the tool illustrated 
above is shown in Fig. 193. For roughing out 
taper work, the tool is used with the curved side 




ROUGHING 



FINISHING 



Fig. 193. 



down, the straight side being flat with the hammer- 
die. When finishing the taper, the tool is reversed, 
the flat side being held at the desired angle and 
the hammer striking the curved side. This curved 
side enables the tool to do good work through 
quite a wide range of angles. If too great an angle 
is attempted, the tool will be forced from under 
the hammer by the wedging action. 

Fullers. — Fullers such as used for ordinary hand 
forgings are very seldom employed in steam-ham- 
mer work. To take their 
place simple round bars 
are used. When much 
used, the bars should be 
of tool-steel. 

One use of round bars, 
as mentioned above, is il- 
lustrated in Fig. 194 




Fig. 194. 
Here the work, as shown, 



I32 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

has a semicircular groove extending around it, 
forming a "neck." The groove is formed by plac- 
ing a short piece of round steel of the proper size 
on the anvil-die; on this is placed the work, with 
the spot where the neck is to be formed directly 
on top of the bar. Exactly above the bar, and 
parallel to it on top of the work, is held another bar 
of the same diameter. By striking with the hammer, 
the bars are driven into the work, forming the 
groove. The work should be turned frequently 
to insure a uniform depth of groove on all sides; 
for, if held in one position, one bar will work in 
deeper than the other. 

Adjusting Work Under the Hammer. — When work 
is first laid on the anvil the hammer should 
always be lowered lightly down on it in order to 
properly "locate" it. This brings the work flat 
and true with the die-faces; and if held in this 
position (and care should be taken to see that it is) , 
there will be little chance of the jumping, jarring, 
and slipping, caused by holding the forging in the 
wrong position. This is particularly true when 
using tools, as great care must be taken to see that 
the hammer strikes them fairly. If the first blow 
is a heavy one, and the work is not placed exactly 
right, there is danger of the piece flying from under 
the hammer and causing a serious accident. 

As an illustration of the above, suppose that a 
piece be carelessly placed on the anvil, as shown in 
Fig. 195, the piece resting on the edge of the anvil 
only, not flat on the face, as it should. 

When the hammer strikes quickly and hard two 




STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 1 33 

things may happen : either the bar will be bent (as 
it will if very hot and soft) or \ / 

it will be knocked into the posi- \ ' 

tion shown by the dotted lines. 
If the hammer be lowered lightly 
at first, the bar will be pushed 
down flat, and assumes the dotted 

.,■■,. 1 KLG. 195. 

position easily, where it may be 
held for the heavy blows. 

Squaring Up Work. — It frequently happens in 
hammer work, as well as in hand forging, that a 
piece which should be square in section becomes 
lopsided and diamond-shaped. 

To correct this fault the forging should be held 
as shown in Fig. 196, with the long diagonal of 

\ / A B C D 

V Qfrob 

i'iG. 196. 

the diamond shape perpendicular to the face of the 
anvil. 

A few blows will flatten the work into the shape 
shown at B ; the work should then be rolled slightly 
in the direction of the arrow and the hammering 
continued, the forging taking the shape of C, and, 
as the rolling and hammering are continued, finally, 
the square section D. 

Making Small Tongs „ — As an example of manipu- 



J 34 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



lation under the hammer, the making of a pair of 
ordinary flat- jawed tongs is a good illustration. 

Fig. 197 shows the different steps from the straight 
stock to the finished piece. 




I 1G. 197. 

The stock is heated to a high heat and bent as 
shown in Figs. 198 and 199. A and B (Fig. 198) 




V_J 



\K 



Fig. i 



Fig. 199. 



are two pieces of flat iron of the same thickness. 
The stock is placed like Fig. 198, the hammer 
brought down lightly, to make sure that every- 
thing is in the proper position, and then one hard 
blow bends the stock into shape (Fig. 199). 

Fig. 200 shows the method of starting the eye 



STEAM-HAMMER WORK. I 35 

and working in the shoulder. The bent piece is 
laid flat on the anvil and a piece of flat steel laid on 
top, in such a position that one side of the steel 
will cut into the work and form the shoulder for 





Fig. 200. Fig. 201. 

the jaw of the tongs. The steel is pounded into 
the work until the metal is forged thin enough to 
form the eye. This leaves the work in the shape 
shown in Fig. 201. The part?^4, Fig. 201, is after- 
ward drawn out to form the handle, the jaw and 
eye are formed up, and, lastly, the eye is punched. 
The forming of the jaw and the punching of the 
rivet -hole should be done with the hand-hammer, 
and not under the steam-hammer. 

The handle is, of course, drawn out under the 
steam-hammer, but needs no particular descrip- 
tion. For careful finishing, the taper tool illus- 
trated in Fig. 192, may be used, or a sledge and 
swages. 

As a general thing, steam-hammer work does not 
differ very much from forging done on the anvil. 
The method of operation, in either case, is almost 
the same; but, when working under the hammer, 
the work is more quickly done and should be han- 
dled more rapidly. 

Crank-shafts. — The crank-shaft, shown in Figs. 



136 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



128 and 129, is a quite common example of steam- 
hammer work. 

The different operations are about the same as 
described for making it on the anvil. 

A specially shaped tool is used to make the cuts 
each side of the crank cheek. This tool and its 
use are shown in Fig. 202. When the cuts are 




Fig. 202. 



Fig. 



very deep, they should first be made with a hot- 
chisel and then spread with the spreading tool. 
If the shoulder is not very high, both operations, 
of cutting and spreading, may be done at once with 
the spreading tool. 

After marking and opening out the cuts, the 
same precautions, to avoid cold-shuts, must be 
taken as are used when doing the same sort of 
work on the anvil. The work should be held and 
handled much the same as illustrated in Fig. 131, 



STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 



137 



only in this case the sledge and anvil are replaced 
by the top and bottom dies of the steam-hammer. 

A block of steel may be used for squaring up into 
the shoulder, as shown in Fig. 203. If a shoulder 
is to be formed on both sides, one block may be 
placed below r and another above the work, some- 
what as shown before in Fig. 194; the round bars 
in the illustration being replaced with square ones. 

Knuckles. — A knuckle such as shown in Fig. 
139 would be made by identically the same 
process as described for making it on the anvil. 
A few suggestions might be made, however. 

After the end of the bar has been split and bent 
apart, ready for shaping, the work should be han- 
dled, under the hammer, as shown in Fig. 204. It 




Fig. 204. 



should first be placed as shown by the solid lines, 
and as the hammering proceeds, should be gradually 
worked over into the position shown by the dotted 
lines. The other side is worked in the same way. 



i38 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



After drawing out and shaping the ends the 
knuckle is finished by bending the ends together 
over a block, in the same way as shown in Fig. 144, 
the work being done under the hammer. 

Connecting-rod. Drawing Out between Shoulders. — 
The forging illustrated in Fig. 126, while hardly 
the exact proportions of common connecting- 
rods, is near enough the proper shape to be a good 
example of that kind of forging. 

The forging, after the proper stock calculation 
has been made, is started by making the cuts near 
the two ends, as shown in Fig. 127. The distance, 
A, must be so calculated, as explained before, that 



J 



™w-v 




Fie. 205. 



Fig. 206. 



the stock represented by that dimension, when 
drawn out, will form the shape, 2" in diameter and 
24" long, connecting the two wide ends. 

The cuts are made with the spreading tool used 
in connection with a short block shaped the same 



STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 1 39 

as the tool, or a second tool, the tools being placed 
one above and one below the work, as shown in 
Fig. 205. 

After making the cuts the stock between them is 
drawn down to the proper size and finished. 

It sometimes happens that the distance A is so 
short that the cuts are closer together than the 
width of the die-faces, thus making it impossible 
to draw out the work by using the flat dies. This 
difficulty may be overcome by using two narrow 
blocks as shown in Fig. 206. 

Weldless Rings — Special Shapes. — It is often nec- 
essary to make rings and similar shapes without a 
weld. The simple process is illustrated in Figs. 
155-7. Rings may be made in this way under the 
steam-hammer much more rapidly than is possible 
by bending and welding. To illustrate the rapid- 
ity with which weldless rings can be made, the 
author has seen the stock cut from the bar, the 
ring forged and trued up in one heat. The ring in 
question was about 10" outside diameter, the section 
of stock in rim being about 
1" square. The stock used 
was about 3" square, soft steel. 

A forging for a die to be 
made of tool-steel is shown in 
Fig. 207. FlG - 20 7- 

This is made in the same general way as weld- 
less rings. The stock is cut, shaped into a disc, 
punched, and worked over a mandril into the shape 
shown at ,4, Fig. 208. 

The lug, projecting toward the center from the 




140 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



flat edge of the die, is shaped on a special mandril, 
the work being done as shown at B, the thick side 




?a5Za\ 



Fig. 208. 

of the ring being driven into the groove in the man- 
dril and shaped up as shown at C, where the end 
view of the mandril and ring is shown. 

If the flat edge of the die is very long, it may be 
straightened out by using a flat mandril and work- 




Fig. 209. 

ing each side of the projecting lug after the lug has 
been formed. 



STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 141 

The forging leaves the hammer in the shape 
shown in Fig. 209 at A. The finishing of the sharp 
corner is done on the anvil with hand tools, in 
much the same way that any corner is squared up, 
Figs. B and C giving a general idea of working up 
the corner by using a flatter. 

Punches.- — The punches used for this kind of 
work, and in fact for all punching under the steam- 
hammer, should be short and thick. 

A punch made as shown in Fig. 210 is very satis- 
factory for general work. This punch is simply 
a short tapering pin with 
a shallow groove formed 
around it about one third 
of the length from the big 

end. A bar of small 

1 • /?/> • 1 Fig. 2I °- 

round iron (f is about 

right for small punches) is heated, wrapped around 

the punch in the groove and twisted tight, as shown. 

The punching is done in exactly the same way 
as with hand tools ; that is, the punch is driven to 
a depth of about one half or two thirds the thick- 
ness of the piece, with the work lying flat on the 
anvil; the piece is then turned over, the punch 
started with the work still flat on the anvil, and 
the hole completed by placing a disc, or some other 
object with a hole in it, on the anvil; on this the 
work is placed with the hole in the disc directly 
under where the punch will come through. The 
punch is then driven through and the hole completed. 

The end of the punch must not be allowed to 
become red-hot. If the punch is' left in contact 




142 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

with the work too long, it will become heated, and, 
after a few blows, the end will spread out in a mush- 
room shape and stick in the hole. 

To prevent the above, the punch should be lifted 
out of the hole and cooled between every few blows. 

Sometimes, when a hole can be accurately lo- 
cated, an arrangement like that shown in Fig. 211 
is used. The punch in this case is only slightly 
longer than the thickness of the piece to be pierced, 
and is used with the big end down as shown. 





DIE 

Pig. 211. Fig. 212. 

The punch is driven, together with the piece of 
metal which is cut out, through into the hole in the 
die, which is just enough larger to give clearance to 
the punch. 

A convenient arrangement for locating the punch 
centrally with the hole in the die is shown in Fig. 
212. 

The die should be somewhat larger in diameter 
than the work to be punched. The work is first 
placed in the proper position on the die and the 
punch placed on top. The punch is located by 
using a spider-shaped arrangement made from thin 
iron. This spider has a central ring with a hole in 
the center large enough to slip easily over the 
punch. Radiating from the ring are four arms, 
three of which have their ends bent down to fit 



STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 143 

around the outside of the die, the fourth being 
longer and used for a handle. The ends of the bent 
arms are so shaped that where they touch the out- 
side of the die the central hole is exactly over the 
hole in the die. 

After locating the punch with the spider, and 
while the spider is still in place, a light blow of the 
hammer starts the punch, after which the spider is 
lifted off and the punch driven through. 

Forming Bosses on Flanges, etc. — A boss, on a 
flange or other flat piece, such as shown in Fig. 213, 
may be very easily formed by using a few simple 





Fig. 213. Fig. 214. 

tools. The special tools are shown in Fig. 214, 
and are : a round cutter used for starting the boss, 
shown at A, which also shows a section of the tool, 
and a flat disc, shown at B, used for flattening 
and finishing the metal around the boss. 

The stock is first forged into shape slightly 
thicker than the boss is to be finished, as it flattens 
down somewhat in the forging. 

The boss is started by making a cut with the 
circular cutter, as shown at A, Fig. 215, where is 
also shown a section of the forging after the cut 
has been made. 



144 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



The metal outside of the cut is then flattened 
out, as shown by the dotted lines. This flattening 




TO. 




Fig. 215. 

and drawing out may be done easily by using a 
bar of round steel, as shown at C. The bar is 
placed in such a position as to fall just outside of 
the boss. After striking a blow with the hammer, 
the bar is moved farther toward the edge of the 
work and the piece is turned slightly. In this way 
the stock is roughly thinned out, leaving the boss 
standing. To finish the work, the forging is turned 
bottom side up over the disc, with the boss extend- 
ing down into the hole in the disc, as shown at B. 
With a few blows, the disc is forced up around the 
boss and finishes the metal off smoothly. 

The disc need not necessarily be large enough to 
extend to the edge of the work; for if a disc as 
described above is used to finish around the boss, 
the edge of the work may be drawn down n the 
usual way under the hammer. 

A disc is not absolutely necessary in any case; 
but the work may be more carefully and quickly 
finished in this way. 



STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 



J 45 



Round Tapering Work. — A round tapering shape, 
such as shown at A, Fig. 216, should be first 




Fig. 216. 



roughly forged into shape. It may be started by 
working in the shoulder next the head with round 
bars, in the way illustrated before in Fig. 194. 

The roughing out may be done with square or 
flat pieces, using them in much the same way; or 
one piece only may be used and the work allowed 
to lie flat on the anvil, with the head projecting 
over the edge. 

After roughing out, the work may be finished 
with swages. As ordinarily used, the swages 
would leave the forging straight, with the oppo- 
site sides parallel. To form a taper, a thin strip 
should be held on top of the upper swage close to 
and parallel with one of the edges, as shown at 
B, Fig. 216. The strip causes the swage to tip 
and slant, thus forming the work tapering. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



DUPLICATE WORK 



When several pieces are to be made as nearly 
alike as possible, the work is generally more easily 
done by using "dies" or "jigs." 

Generally speaking, ' ' dies ' ' are blocks of metal 
having faces shaped for bending or forming work. 
The term "jig" may be applied to almost any 
contrivance used for helping to bend, shape, or 
form work. As ordinarily used, a jig, generally, 
is simply a combination of some sort of form or 

flat plate and one or more 
clamps and levers for bend- 
ing. 

Dies, or jigs, for simple 
bending may be easily and 
cheaply made of ordinary 
cast iron; and, for most 
purposes, left rough, or un- 
finished. 

Simple Bending. — The 
bend shown in Fig. 217 is 
a fair example of simple 
work. The dies for making 
this bend are two blocks 
of cast iron made as shown, one simply a rect- 
us 




"1 B 



n 



Fig. 217. 



DUPLICATE WORK. 1 47 

angular block the size of the inside of the bend to 
be made, the other a block having on one side a 
groove the same shape as the outside of the piece 
to be bent. The blocks should be slightly wider 
than the stock to be bent. 

The stock is cut to the proper length, heated, 
placed on the hollow block, and the small block 
placed on top, as shown by the dotted lines at B, 
Fig. 217. The bend is made by driving down the 
small block with a blow of the hammer. 

Work of this kind may be easily done under a 
steam-hammer; and the dies described here are 
intended for use in this way, most of them having 
been designed for, and used under, a 200-lb. ham- 
mer. 

Dies of this kind may be fitted to the jaws of an 
ordinary vise, the bending being done by tighten- 
ing up the screw. 

A die such as described above should have a 
little "clearance"; that is, the opening in the hol- 
low die should be slightly larger at the top than at 
the bottom. The small, or top, die should be made 
accordingly, slightly smaller at the bottom. 

To make the dies easier to handle, a hole may be 
drilled and tapped in each block and pieces of 
round bars threaded and screwed into the holes to 
form handles. This is more fully described in the 
following example: 

Fig. 218, A, is a hook bent from stock f" X 1", to 
fit around the flange of an I beam. The hooks 
were about 6" long when finished. To bend these, 
two cast-iron blocks, or dies, were used, shown at 



148 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



B. The dies were rough castings. Patterns were 
made by laying out the hook on a piece of 2" white 






















A 










\ u ll \ 



Fig. 218. 



Fig. 219. 



pine and then sawing to shape with a band-saw. 
The block was "laid off" as shown in Fig. 219, A, 
the sawing being done on the dotted lines. This 
left the blocks of such a shape that the space be- 
tween them, when they were brought together 
with the upper and lower edges parallel, was just 
equal to the thickness of the stock to be bent. 

Patterns of this kind should be given plenty of 
' ' draft, ' ' which may be quickly and easily done by 
planing the sides, after the blocks are sawed out, 
to taper slightly as shown in Fig. 219, B, where the 
dotted lines show the square sides before being 
planed off for draft as indicated by the solid lines. 

When the castings were made, a 13 / 32 " hole was 
drilled in the right-hand end of each block and 
tapped with \" tap. A piece of \" round iron 
about 30" long was threaded with a die for about 
\\" on each end and bent up to form the handle. 



DUPLICATE WORK. 1 49 

A. nut was run- on each end and the blocks screwed 
on and locked by screwing the nut up against them, 
making the finished dies as shown in Fig. 218. The 
handle formed a spring, holding the dies far enough 
apart to allow the iron to be placed between 
them. 

As mentioned before, dies of this kind can be 
easily made to cover a variety of work, and are 
very inexpensive. The dies in question, for in- 
stance, required about half an hour's pattern work, 
iind about as much time more to fit the handles. 
Calculating shop time at 50 cents per hour and 
castings at 5 cents per pound, and allowing for the 
handle, the entire cost of these dies was less than 
$1.25. 

The same handle can be used for any number of 
dies of about the same size, and if any one of these 
dies should break, it can be replaced at a very 
trifling cost. 

Cast-iron dies of this character will bend several 
hundred pieces and show no signs of giving out, 
although they may snap at the first piece if made 
of hard iron. On an important job it is generally 
wise to cast an extra set to have in case the first 
prove defective. 

Almost any simple shape may be bent in this 
way, and the dies may be used on any ordinary 
steam-hammer with flat forging faces ; and not only 
that, but, not having to be fastened down in any 
way, they may be placed under the hammer, or 
removed, without interfering with other work. 

Loop with Bent-in Ends. — For larger work, it is 



i5° 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



often better to have a die to replace the lower die 
of the hammer, as in the case mentioned below. 

A number of forgings were wanted like A, Fig. 
220. The stock was cut to the proper length and 




Fig. 220. 

the ends bent at right angles. To make all the 
pieces alike, one end of each piece was first bent, 
as shown at B, in a vise. The other ends of the 
pieces were then all bent the same way, by hooking 
the bent end over a bar cut to the proper length 
and bending down the straight end over the other 
end of the bar, as shown at C. To make the final 
bend, a cast-iron form was used similar to D. This 
casting was about 2\" thick, and the dovetail- 
shaped base fitted the slot in the anvil base of the 
hammer. When the form was used, the anvil-die 
was removed and the form put in its place. 

The strips to be bent were laid on top of this form 
and a heavy piece of flat stock, i"X2", bent into 



DUPLICATE WORK. 



IS 1 



a U shape to fit the outside of the forging, placed 
on top. A light blow of the hammer would force 
the U-shaped piece down, bending the stock into 
the proper shape. Fig. 221 shows the operation, 
the dotted lines indicat- 
ing the position of the 
pieces before bringing 
down the hammer 

The most satisfactory 
results were obtained 
by bringing the ham- 
mer down lightly on 
the work, then, by turn- 
ing on a full head of 
steam, the ram was 
forced down compara- 
tively slowly, bending 
the stock gradually and 
easily. This was much 
more satisfactory than a quick, sharp blow. 

It is not necessary to have the U-shaped piece of 
exactly the same shape as the forging. It is suffi- 
cient if the lower ends of the U are the proper dis- 
tance apart. As the strip is bent over the form, it 
naturally follows the outline; and it is only neces- 
sary to force it against the form at the lower points 
of the sides. 

The last bend might have been made by using a 
second die fastened to the ram of the hammer in 
place of the U-shaped loop. 

Two dies are necessary for much work ; but these 
are more expensive to make. The upper die can 




Fig. 221. 



152 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



be easily made to fit in the dovetail on the ram and 
be held in place with a key. 

Right-angle Bending. — Very convenient tools for 
bending right angles, in stock \" or less in thick- 
ness, are shown in Fig. 222. The lower one is made 

to fit easily over the anvil 
of the steam-hammer, the 
projecting lips on either 
side preventing the die 
from sliding forward or 
back. The upper one has 
a handle screwed in, as 
described before. Both 
of these bending tools are 
made of cast iron, the 
patterns being simply 
sawed from a 2" plank. 
Cast-iron dies of this 
kind should be made of a tough, gray iron, rather 
than the harder white iron, as they are less liable to 
break if cast from the former. 

Many of the regular hammer dies, that is, the dies 
with flat faces for general forging, are made of cast 
iron ; but the iron in this case is of another quality 
— chilled iron— the faces being chilled, or hardened, 
for a depth of an inch or more. 

Circular Bending — Coil Springs. — The dies de- 
scribed before have been for simple bends; the 
blows, or bending force, coming from one direction 
only. In the following example, where a complete 
circle, or more than a circle, is formed, an arrange- 
ment of a different nature is required. 




Fig. 22: 



DUPLICATE WORK. 



153 



The spring shown in Fig. 223 is an example of 
this kind. In this particular case the bending 
was done cold; but for hot bending the operation 
is exactly the same. 





Fig. 223. 



Fig. 224. 



This jig (Fig. 224) was built upon a base-plate, A, 
about f" thick, having one end bent down at right 
angles for clamping in an ordinary vise. 

The post E was simply a 1" stud screwed into 
the plate. B was a piece of |"Xi" stock about 
2" long, fastened down with two rivets, and served 
as a stop for clamping the stock against while bend- 
ing. C was a lever made of a piece of f'Xi" 
stock about 10" long, having one end ground 
rounding as shown. This lever turned on the 
screw F, threaded into the base-plate. D was the 
bending lever, having a hole punched and forged 
in the end large enough to turn easily on the stud 
E. On the under side of this lever was riveted a 
short piece of iron having one end bent down at 
right angles. This piece was so placed that the 
distance between stud E and the inside face of bent 
end, when the lever was in position for bending, was 



154 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

about y 64 " greater than the thickness of the stock 
to be bent. 

When in operation, the stock to be bent was 
placed in the position shown in the sketch, the 
lever C pulled over to lock it in place, and the bend- 
ing lever D dropped over it in the position shown. 
To bend the stock, the lever was pulled around in 
the direction of the arrow and as many turns taken 
as were wanted for the spring, or whatever was 
being bent. By lifting off the bending lever and 
loosening the clamping lever the piece could be 
slipped from the stud. 

With jigs of any kind a suitable stop should 
always be provided to place the end of the stock 
against, in order to insure placing and bending all 
pieces as nearly as possible alike. 

Drop-forgings. — Strictly speaking, drop-forgings 
are forgings made between dies in a drop-press or 
forge. Each die has a cavity in its face, so shaped 
that when the dies are in contact the hole left has 
the form of the desired forging. One of the dies is 
fastened to the bed of the drop-press, directly in 
line with and under the other die, which is keyed 
to the under side of the drop, a heavy weight run- 
ning between upright guides. The forging is done 
by raising the drop and allowing it to fall between 
the guides of its own weight. 

There are generally two or more sets of cavities 
in the die-faces, one set being used for roughing 
out, or "breaking down," the stock roughly to 
shape ; another set for finishing. 

The dies mentioned above would be known as 



DUPLICATE WORK. I 55 

the "breaking-down" and. "finishing" dies, re- 
spectively. Sometimes several intermediate dies 
are used. 

In a general way, the term drop-forging may be 
used to describe almost any forging formed be- 
tween shaped dies whether made by a drop-press or 
other means. 

Taking the word in its broadest meaning, the 
example given below might be called a drop-forg- 
ing, the work being done between shaped dies. 

Eye-bolt — Drop-forging. — The example in ques- 
tion is the eye-bolt given in Fig. 225. The differ- 
ent steps in the making, and 
the dies used, are shown in Fig. 
226. 

Round stock is used, and first 

shaped like A, Fig. 226, the 

forming being done in the die 

B. This die, as well as the other 

Fig. 225. 
one, is made m the same way 

as ordinary steam-hammer swages ; that is, simply 

two blocks of tool-steel fastened together with a 

spring handle. The inside faces of the blocks are 

formed to shape the piece as shown. 

The stock is revolved through about 90 degrees 
between each two blows of the steam-hammer, and 
the hammering continued until the die-faces just 
touch. 

For the second step the ball is flattened to about 
the thickness of the finished eye between the bare 
hammer-dies. The hole is then punched, under 
the hammer, with an ordinary punch. 




i5<5 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



The forging is finished with a few blows in the 
finishing die D, which is shown by a sectional cut 
and plan. This die is so shaped that, when the 
two parts are together, the hole left is exactly the 




— ' Vx'~" 


\ 
\ 






— \_/ - V_„ 


1 



SECTION AT X-X 



Fig. 226. 

shape of the finished forging. In the first die, how- 
ever, it should be noticed that the holes do not con- 
form exactly to the desired shape of the forging; 
here the holes, instead of being semicircular, are 
rounded off considerably at the edges. This -is 
shown more clearly in Fig. 227, A, where the dotted 
lines show the shape of the forging, the solid lines 
the shape of the die. 

The object of the above is this : If the hole is a 
semicircle in section, the stock, being larger than 
the small parts of the hole, after a blow, is left 



DUPLICATE WORK. 



157 




Fig. 227. 



like B, the metal being forced out between the 

flat faces of the die and 

forming 'fins.' When 

the bar is turned and 

again hit, these fins are 

doubled in and make a 

bad place in the forging. 

When the hole is a 
modified semicircle, as de- 
scribed above, the stock 
will be formed like C, 
and may be turned and 
worked without injury 
or danger of cold-shuts. 

Forming Dies Hot. — Making dies for work of the 
above kind is generally an expensive process, par- 
ticularly if the work be done in the machine-shop. 

Rough dies for this kind of work may be cheaply 
made in the forge-shop by forming them hot. 

The blocks for the dies are forged and prepared, 
and a blank, or 'master,' forging the same shape 
and size as the forgings the dies are expected to 
form is made from tool-steel and hardened. 

The die blanks are then heated, the master 
placed between them, and the dies hammered to- 
gether, the master being turned frequently during 
the hammering. 

This, of course, leaves a cavity the shape of the 
master. 

When two or more sets of dies are necessary 
there, of course, must be separate masters for each 
set of dies, Dies made in this way will have the 



158 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

corners of the cavities rounded off, as the metal is 
naturally pulled away during the forming, leaving 
the corners somewhat relieved. 

Dies such as described above may be used to 
advantage under almost any steam-hammer. 

For spring hammers, helve hammers, and power 
hammers generally the die faces may be formed 
the same as above; but the die-blocks should be 
fastened to the hammer and anvil of the power 
hammer itself, replacing the ordinary dies. 

Cast-iron Dies. — Much drop-forging is done with 
cast iron dies, and for rough work that is not too 
heavy they are very satisfactory, and the first cost 
is very small as compared with the steel dies used 
for the same purpose. 

Drop-forging can be done in this way with the 
steam-hammer, by keying the dies in the dovetails 
made for the top and bottom hammer-dies. 

Welding in particular is done in this way, as the 
metal to be worked is in such a soft condition that 
there is little chance of smashing the die. 



CHAPTER IX. 

METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 

Classification. — For intelligent working in iron 
and steel some understanding of their chemical 
nature and method of manufacture is necessary. 

For convenience' sake, the irons and steels ordi- 
narily used in the forge-shop may be divided into 
three general classes, viz. : 

i. Wrought iron. 

2. Machine-steel, or low-carbon steel. 

3. Tool-steel. 

Cast iron should also be considered as being the 
base product from which the above are derived. 

Roughly speaking, the above metals may be con- 
sidered as mixtures, or, better, compounds of iron 
and carbon. 

There is always present a small percentage of 
other elements, such as manganese, silicon, sulphur, 
phosphorus, etc., but for the present these need not 
be considered. 

The percentage of carbon commonly contained 
in the several materials is about as follows : 

Cast iron 2 . 50 to 4 . 50 per cent. 

Wrought iron 02 ' " . 50 " " 

Machine-steel 02 ' . 60 " " 

Tool -steel 70 " 1 . 50 ' ' 

159 



l6o FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Cast Iron. — The crude material, from which all 
iron and steel are manufactured, is iron ore; which 
is, in its commercial forms, iron oxide. Some of 
the common ores have much the same appearance 
and color as iron rust. 

To obtain cast iron, the ore is mixed with lime- 
stone and melted in a blast-furnace. The blast- 
furnace is a shell of iron round in section and lined 
with fire-brick. For a short distance up from the 
bottom the sides are straight, then rapidly con- 
verge, and then contract again to about the same 
diameter as the bottom. Such a furnace, with its 
accompanying 'hot-stoves,' is shown, partly in 
section, in Fig. 228. 

The blast-furnace here illustrated is about 80 feet 
high and 20 feet inside diameter at its largest point. 

Heated air, under pressure, is blown into the fur- 
nace through water cooled tuyeres placed a short 
distance above the bed, or bottom, of the furnace. 

When the furnace is in operation, there is a bed 
of burning coke extending somewhat below the 
level of the tuyeres ; on this is a charge, or layer, of 
mixed ore and limestone, then a layer of fuel, 
another layer of ore and limestone, etc., until the 
furnace is nearly filled, more ore and fuel being 
added as the mass settles down in the furnace. 
The limestone acts as a flux and helps to carry off, 
as slag, earthy impurities in the ore. The ore, as 
it melts, is deoxidized; that is, the oxygen is car- 
ried off, and the molten iron, being much heavier 
than the other material in the furnace, sinks to the 
bottom. 



METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 



161 



When enough melted iron has collected in the 
bottom, or hearth, of the furnace, a small hole is 
opened, and the molten metal flows out and runs 




By Courtesy of The Scientific American. 

Fig. 228. 

into a series of small ditches, much like a gridiron, 
where it cools, and is then broken up into pieces 
4 or 5 feet long. These pieces are called ' pigs ' ; and 
in this form cast iron is marketed. 

When castings are to be made, these 'pigs' are 



1 62 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

remelted in the foundry, in a furnace called a cupola, 
similar to, but considerably smaller than, the blast- 
furnace. 

It was the custom some years ago to allow the 
hot gases to escape from the top of the furnace 
and to blow in cold blast through the tuyeres. 
Now the top of the furnace is kept closed by means 
of a cone-shaped casting pulled upward against a 
conical rim, slanting downward. 

When new material is to be added to the charge, 
the ore or fuel is dumped inside the slanting, funnel- 
shaped rim and the cone is lowered, allowing the 
material to slide downward, when the cone is again 
raised, thus closing the furnace. 

Just below the rim a large pipe opens into the 
furnace. Through this pipe the hot gases are led 
downward into the 'hot -stoves.' 

The hot-stoves are iron cylinders about 20 feet in 
diameter and 80 feet high, filled with fire-brick hav- 
ing small holes, or flues, extending from top to 
bottom of the stove. The hot gases rise through 
one set of flues and descend through another, thus 
heating the brick to a high temperature. 

After leaving the stoves, the gases are carried 
through underground pipes to a large stack, or 
chimney, and discharged into the air. When a 
stove has been thoroughly heated in this way the 
gases are turned into other stoves, and the cold 
blast from the blowing-engines is forced through 
the flues in the heated brick on its way to the blast- 
furnace. 

Each stove is used in turn in this way. 



METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 1 63 

The blast leaving a hot-stove is heated to a tem- 
perature considerably over iooo° F. The use of 
hot blasts effects a considerable saving in the 
manufacture of cast iron; and its introduction is 
regarded as marking an epoch in the iron indus- 
tries. 

Wrought Iron. — It will be seen from the table 
that, while cast iron contains a comparatively 
large amount of carbon, wrought iron and machine- 
steel contain very little. It would seem only nec- 
essary, then, in order to make either of the two 
last-named metals, to remove some of the carbon 
from cast iron. In most cases this is exactly what 
is done. First, the high-carbon cast iron is made, 
and then a large part of the carbon is burned out, 
leaving the low-carbon wrought iron, or machine- 
steel. 

Both wrought iron and machine-steel are made 
by very similar processes, the essential difference 
being principally the temperature at which the 
metals are worked. 

Fig. 229 represents a "puddling" furnace used 
for making wrought iron. The sketch shows a sec- 
tion running the length of the furnace through its 
center. At A is the fireplace; B, the hearth, or 
puddle; and the stack, or flue, at C. 

A fire is built in the fireplace, and the flames on 
their way to the stack are deflected downward, by 
the roof of the furnace, upon the iron lying on the 
hearth. The iron is thus brought under the influ- 
ence of the flames without being in direct contact 
with the fire. 



164 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



Cast iron, together with hammer scale, or some 
other oxide of iron, is placed upon the hearth and 
melted down. The fire is then so regulated as to 
give an oxidizing flame; that is, more air passed 
through the fire than can be burned, leaving a sur- 
plus of oxygen in the flames which are playing over 




Fig. 229. 

the "melted iron on the hearth. The oxygen in the 
flames, as well as that in the hammer scale, or iron 
ore, melted with the cast iron, gradually burns out 
the carbon of the cast iron. The melted mass is 
constantly stirred in order to expose all parts to 
the influence of the flames. 

As a general rule, the more carbon iron contains 
the easier it melts ; so cast iron will melt at a much 
lower heat than wrought iron. A temperature 
which is high enough to melt cast iron will leave 
wrought iron in sort of a pasty condition. 

When making wrought iron, as the carbon is 
burned out of the iron the temperature of the fur- 
nace is kept below the melting-point of wrought 
iron, but above that of cast iron ; and, as the carbon 
is burned out, the metal stiffens and becomes pasty ; 
and, as the process is completed, the pasty mass is 



METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 1 65 

worked up into balls, which at the completion of 
the process are taken from the furnace and ham- 
mered or rolled into bars. 

There is more or less slag with the iron in the 
puddle, and some of this slag sticks to the iron, 
and drops of it are mixed with the iron in the balls. 
Some of this slag is squeezed from the balls, but 
part of it remains in small drops all through the 
mass. When the balls are drawn out into shape, 
these small drops of slag are lengthened out and 
form minute streaks running through the length of 
the bar. These small seams of slag give wrought 
iron its peculiar characteristics together with its 
fibrous structure. 

Machine-steel. — Machine-steel is variously known 
as machine-steel, machinery-steel, low-carbon steel, 
mild steel, and soft steel. The common shop name 
is machine- or machinery-steel, while the more 
correct technical term is low-carbon steel. 

Machine-steel contains about the same amount of 
carbon as wrought iron, but does not have the slag 
seams of the iron. Like wrought iron, it is made 
by reducing the amount of carbon in cast iron. 

Machine-steel may be divided into two classes, 
open-hearth and Bessemer, both deriving their 
names from the method of manufacture. 

Bessemer steel is made by blowing air through 
melted cast iron, the oxygen in the air burning out 
the silicon and carbon, all of the carbon, as nearly 
as possible, being removed in this way, the proper 
amount of carbon afterward being added to the 
steel in the form of " spiegeleisen " — a form of 
cast iron very rich in manganese, carbon, and silicon. 



1 66 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

In this process the cast iron is treated in a vessel 
known as a converter. The converter is a large 
barrel-shaped steel or iron vessel, 15 or 20 ft. high, 
lined with fire-brick, and having a bottom pierced 
with many small holes through which air is blown. 
The top is covered, with the exception of a short, 
spout-shaped opening about 3 ft. in diameter. 
The converter is mounted on trunnions, and may 
be turned upside down, right side up, or any inter- 
mediate position. 

In operation, the converter is turned in a horizon- 
tal position, a charge of melted cast iron poured in 
at the mouth, and the blast turned on. The blast 
has sufficient pressure to prevent the melted iron 
from flowing down into the tuyeres in the bottom. 
The vessel is then turned on its trunnions into an 
upright position and the air blown through the 
metal until practically all the carbon has been 
burned out. The exact condition of the metal is 
shown by the flame coming from the mouth of the 
converter, this flame changing in color and volume 
as the silicon and carbon are gradually burned. 
When the carbon has been consumed, the converter 
is again turned on its side, the blast stopped, the 
necessary amount of spiegeleisen added to give the 
proper per cent of carbon and manganese, and the 
contents of the vessel poured into a large casting 
ladle. From the ladle the metal is poured into 
moulds and cast into ' ' ingots." 

If the "blowing" is continued too long, the iron 
itself will begin to burn, making the metal ' 'rotten" 
and crumbly when working. 

It seems like a waste of time to burn all the carbon 



METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 



167 



•out and then add more; but it is easier to remove 
nearly all the carbon and replace some of it than to 
stop the blow at just the moment when the carbon 
content is right. 

This process derives its name from Sir Henry 
Bessemer, credited with its invention, and has been 
used since about 1858. 

Open-hearth steel is made by melting together 
pig iron, cast iron, and scrap iron and steel, and 
removing the carbon by the action of an oxidizing 
flame of burning gas. 

The process is carried out in a furnace the same in 
principle as, but more elaborate in construction than, 
the puddling-furnace used in making wrought iron. 

A view and partial section of a large open-hearth 
furnace is shown in Fig. 230. The fuel used is pro- 




By courtesy of the Scientific American. 

Fig. 230. 



ducer-gas. This is made by burning coal in air- 
tight retorts, not enough air being supplied to give 



1 68 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

complete combustion. The gas from these retorts 
is forced into the furnace through valves and a 
mass of heated brickwork pierced with holes. Air 
is also supplied to the furnace through a similar 
arrangement, the air and gas entering through 
openings near each other and combining to make 
an intensely hot flame. This flame plays over the 
metal lying on the hearth of the furnace and per- 
forms exactly the same work as the flame from the 
fire in the puddling-furnace. 

The hot gases from the furnace, instead of being 
allowed to escape, are first led through an arrange- 
ment of brickwork at the opposite end of the fur- 
nace, similar to the heated brickwork through 
which the entering gas and air were forced. 

After a short time the valves, through which the 
air and gas are admitted, are turned, and the air 
and gas are forced through the brickwork which 
has been heating, the flames being then led through 
the first set of bricks, which is, in its turn, heated, 
this reversal of the flow taking place several times 
an hour. This arrangement is very similar to the 
hot-stoves used with the blast-furnace. 

Under the action of the gas-flame the carbon is 
gradually oxidized, and when it has been reduced 
to the proper percentage the melted metal is 
drawn from the hearth and cast into ingots. 

This process takes much longer than the Besse- 
mer, but may be stopped at any moment when the 
steel contains the proper amount of carbon. 

As a comparison of the two different processes, it 
may be said that open-hearth steel, from the nature 



METALLURGY OP IRON AND STEEL. 1 69 

of the process, may be tested and corrected from 
time to time while it is being converted, while 
Bessemer steel is converted so rapidly that none of 
this testing can be done. 

Bessemer steel is used mostly for rails, also to 
some extent for structural shapes and cheaper 
boiler-steel, etc. 

Open-hearth steel is used for best grades of 
boiler-plate, structural steel, etc. 

The United States Government specifies that 
sheet steel used in marine boilers must be made by 
the open-hearth process. 

When machine-steel is made, the temperature of 
the furnace is high enough to keep the metal liquid 
during the entire process. In this way the slag 
floats to the top of the iron and does not remain 
mixed with it, as when making wrought iron. 

After sufficient carbon has been taken from the 
iron, and while the metal is still in a molten condi- 
tion, it is drawn off from underneath the slag, cast 
into ingots, and later rolled into bars. This gives 
the steel a granular, not a fibrous, structure, and 
leaves it free from the slag contained in wrought 
iron. 

Tool-steel. — Tool-steel may be made by the 
process outlined above — that is, by making a 
high-carbon open-hearth or Bessemer steel; but 
the best steel is made by the ' 'crucible" process. 

Ordinary tool-steel contains about i per cent car- 
bon, and may be made either by taking some of the 
carbon from cast iron, which might be done by the 
methods above, or adding carbon to wrought iron. 



170 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

The last is the method in common use. In the 
crucible process, small pieces of wrought iron, steel 
scrap, and other material rich in carbon are mixed 
in proper proportions to give the desired percentage 
of carbon and are placed in a crucible. The cruci- 
ble is covered with a lid to prevent the oxidation 
of the melted metal, placed in a furnace and the 
mixture melted down. When the metal has been 
melted and properly mixed, the crucible is taken 
from the furnace and the* steel poured into a mold, 
and cast into an ingot, which is afterward rolled into 
bars. 

What was known as ' ' blister steel ' ' was once 
made in almost the same way ' ' case-hardening ' ' is 
now done. " Harveyizing " armor plate is also 
done in somewhat the same way. 

The_ process was based on the fact that when 
wrought iron is heated in contact with some sub- 
stance very rich in carbon, it will gradually absorb 
the carbon from those substances and be converted 
into high-carbon steel. This is the principle used 
when making blister steel or in case-hardening. 

Steel was at one time commonly made by sur- 
rounding bars of wrought iron with charcoal and 
sealing the bars and the charcoal in air-tight 
boxes, this being necessary to prevent oxidation 
during the heating which followed. The boxes 
were heated to a high temperature and held at 
that heat for several days. The outside of the bars 
was carbonized first, thus making a shell, or coat- 
ing, of tool-steel around a soft, wrought-iron center. 
In other wcrds, carbon was added to the low-carbon 



METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. I 7 r 

wrought iron and converted it into high-carbon 
tool-steel. As the heating was continued, the 
carbon worked in deeper and deeper, but the inside 
of the bar would not become as highly carbonized 
as the outside and the steel was ' ' streaky." 

After bars were carbonized in this way, they 
were cut into lengths and welded together, making 
the steel more uniform in structure, but not nearly 
as uniform as modern "crucible" steel. 

Comparison of Wrought-iron and Machine-steel. — 
Both wrought-iron and low-carbon steel are chem- 
ically about the same; that is, a sample of each 
may contain about the same amount of carbon, 
etc., and yet the two materials may be very differ- 
ent. 

The broken end of a bar of iron has a stringy, 
fibrous appearance, while machine-steel shows a 
more crystalline, grainy fracture. It is this struc- 
tural condition that marks the distinction between 
the two metals. 

The fiber of the wrought iron is produced by 
minute, slag seams. Each one of these slag seams 
is more or less a source of weakness, as the slag, 
being much weaker than the iron, is liable to give 
way, causing a crack. The presence of the slag 
is of some advantage when welding, acting as a 
flux. 

Wrought iron is much more liable to split than 
machine-steel when being forged, and, while it 
may be heated and worked at a slightly higher 
temperature than steel, will not stand as much 
hammering at a lower temperature. 



172 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Machine-steel is stronger than wrought iron, hav- 
ing a tensile strength very much higher. 

Machine-steel may be welded easily without a 
flux; but sound welds are more easily made when 
a flux is used, the welding being done at a slightly 
lower heat than the welding heat of wrought iron. 

Machine-steel may not be distinguished from 
wrought iron by the hardening test. Some irons 
may be slightly hardened, while many low-carbon 
steels can not be hardened to any appreciable ex- 
tent. The Government specifications for boiler- 
plate state that the steel used in boilers shall be 
capable of being heated to a red heat, plunged in 
cold water, and then bent double, cold — showing 
by this that steel does not necessarily harden. 

In brief: In a forging, when much welding is to 
be done, wrought iron has some advantages; but, 
for general work — particularly when much forging 
is required — machine-steel is to be preferred, being 
stronger and less liable to split. 

The fibrous structure of wrought iron is well 
shown by taking a piece 5" or 6" long and treating 
it with weak acid for a day or so. The acid will 
etch in the iron and leave the fibers of slag standing 
in relief. 

Properties of Wrought Iron, Mild Steel, and Tool- 
steel. — In brief, the valuable properties of the 
different metals are as follows: 

Wrought iron: Easily welded; easily hammered, 
or forged, into shape while hot; can be worked to 
some extent while cold; will not harden to any 
extent ; particularly good for welds. 



METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 1 73 

Mild steel: Easily welded; easily hammered, or 
forged, into shape while hot ; can be worked to some 
extent while cold; will not harden to any extent; 
particularly good for forging ; stronger than wrought 
iron. 

Tool-steel: Particularly valuable on account of 
its hardening property; much stronger than mild 
steel in tensile strength; used principally for mak- 
ing tools and parts of machines where wearing qual- 
ities are required; welds with difficulty, sometimes 
not at all; properties depend to large extent upon 
percentage of carbon present. 



CHAPTER X. 

TOOL-STEEL WORK. 

Tool-steel. — Ordinary tool-steel is practically a 
combination of iron and carbon. The kind com- 
monly used for small tools contains about i per cent 
carbon. 

Steel which contains a large amount of carbon is 
known as "high" carbon steel, while that having a 
small amount is called "low" carbon steel. Steel- 
makers use the word "temper" as referring to the 
amount of carbon a steel contains; thus a steel- 
maker speaks of a high-temper steel as meaning a 
steel containing a large amount of carbon, and a 
low temper as meaning a small amount of carbon. 

Steel is also designated by the number of hun- 
dredths of i-per-cent carbon which it contains. 
For instance, a one-hundred-carbon steel contains 
i per cent, or one hundred hundredths per cent 
carbon, a forty-carbon steel contains forty hun- 
dredths per cent carbon, etc. 

The property of tool-steel which makes it par- 
ticularly valuable is the fact that it can be hardened 
to a greater or less degree to suit the purpose for 
which it is intended. 

Hardening. — If a piece of tool-steel be heated 

174 



TOOL-STEEL WORK. I 75 

red-hot and then suddenly cooled it becomes very 
hard. This is known as "hardening." If the 
reverse be done — the steel heated red-hot and 
cooled very slowly — it will be softened. This is 
known as "annealing." In other words — the speed 
at which a piece of steel is cooled from a high heat 
determines its hardness; thus, if steel is cooled 
very fast it becomes very hard ; if cooled very slowly 
it is softened, and by varying the speed of the cool- 
ing the hardness of the steel may be varied. 

The proper heat from which the steel should be 
cooled varies with the percentage of carbon in the 
steel. As a general rule, the greater the amount 
of carbon, the lower the hardening heat — that is, 
a ' ' high ' ' steel will harden at a much lower tem- 
perature than a ' ' low" carbon steel. 

The only way to determine the proper heat at 
which to harden any particular kind of steel is by 
experiment. This may be easily done as follows: 
A small piece of the same kind of steel as that to 
be hardened is hammered out into a bar about \" 
or |" square. The end of this bar is heated until 
it shows dull red and then cooled in cold water. 
The end should be tried with a file and about \" 
broken off over the corner of the anvil. 

It will probably be found that the steel may be 
filed, and breaks with difficulty, the grain of the 
broken end being rather coarse and 'somewhat 
stringy. The same experiment should be repeated 
at a slightly higher heat. This time the steel w r ill 
be harder — shown by its being harder to file and 
more easily broken — and the grain will be slightly 



176 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

finer. This experiment should be repeated, rais- 
ing the heat slightly each time, until a heat is 
reached which, after cooling, leaves the steel so 
hard that the file will slip over without catching 
at all, and so brittle that it snaps very easily. 
When broken, the break shows a very fine, even 
grain. This is the proper heat at which to harden 
that particular kind of steel, and is called the 
' ' hardening heat." 

If the experimenting be continued it will be seen 
that each additional increase of temperature, above 
the hardening heat, increases the coarseness of the 
grain and makes the steel very brittle, indicating 
that the steel, when hardened at these higher heats, 
grows coarser and less fine in texture, and, conse- 
quently, is not as strong, and will not hold as good 
a cutting edge, as if hardened at the proper ' ' hard- 
ening" heat. 

The proper heat at which to harden any kind of 
steel is, as noted above, that particular heat that 
gives the steel the finest grain and leaves it file 
hard. 

The two general laws of hardening are these : 

1. The more carbon a steel contains the lower 
the heat at which it may be properly hardened. 

2. The faster steel is cooled from the hardening 
heat the harder it becomes. 

Tempering. — Giving a piece of steel or a tool 
the proper degree of hardness to do the work for 
which it is intended is known as "tempering." 

The steel- workers use the word ' ' temper " in a 
very different sense from the steel-makers. ; ' Tern- 



TOOL-STEEL WORK. 177 

per" is used by the tool -maker, or tool-smith, as 
meaning the hardness of a tool or piece of tempered 
steel, regardless of the amount of carbon it con- 
tains. 

Tools hardened as described above (heated to 
hardening heat and cooled in cold water) are too 
hard and brittle for most uses, and must be softened 
somewhat to fit them to perform the work they are 
intended for. 

The operation of slightly softening the hardened 
steel is known as " ' drawing the temper, ' ' and this 
is. accomplished by slightly reheating the previ- 
ously hardened steel. 

If a piece of hardened steel be heated to a tem- 
perature of about 430 F. it will be very slightly 
softened and toughened, being left about hard 
enough for engraving- tools, small lathe- tools, 
scrapers, etc. If the heat be raised to 460 F. or 
500 F., the hardness is about right for taps, dies, 
drills, etc. Reheating to 550 F. or 560 F. makes 
the hardened steel about right for cold-chisels, saws, 
etc.; while a temperature of 570 F. leaves very 
little hardness in the steel — just about right for 
springs. When a temperature of 650 F. is reached 
the ' ' temper ' ' is all gone and the steel is left soft 
enough to be easily filed. With a slight increase 
of temperature above this point the steel becomes 
red-hot. 

These temperatures to which the steel is reheated 
may be measured in several ways. One way would 
be to heat a bath of oil to the proper temperature 
and, after hardening, dip the tools in this until they 



178 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

were of the same temperature as the bath. This 
would answer for tempering on a large scale, but 
is hardly practical when only a few tools are to be 
treated. 

The steel itself furnishes about the easiest means 
of roughly determining this temperature. If a 
piece of steel or iron be polished bright and heated, 
a thin scale forms on the outside, which changes color 
as the temperature is increased. When the scale 
first commences to appear, at a temperature of 
about 430 F., the surface of the steel seems to turn 
a very pale yellow ; as the temperature increases and 
the scale grows thicker, this yellow becomes darker, 
changes into brown, which becomes tinged with 
red, turning into light purple, dark purple, and 
finally blue. These colors are due to the thin oxide 
or scale formed and show nothing except the tem- 
perature to which the metal was last heated. 

A piece of wrought iron or soft steel will, when 
heated, show these colors as well as tool-steel. The 
colors are permanent and remain after the metal 
is cooled. The colored scale is very thin and may 
be easily removed by polishing. 

If the tool is not properly hardened in the first 
place the fact that it shows the proper temper color 
on the outside means nothing. 

About the only way to test the temper of a tool is 
to try it with a file, and even then the grain may 
be too coarse, due to hardening at too high a heat. 

The complete process of tempering a tool (i.e., 
giving it the proper degree of hardness to perform 
its work) consists of first hardening, by cooling sud- 



TOOL-STEEL WORK. I 79 

denly from the hardening heat, and then slightly 
softening, by reheating to a comparatively low 
temperature. 

After the reheating the steel may be suddenly 
cooled or left to cool in the air. Sudden cooling 
leaves it slightly harder. 

The higher the temperature of the reheating, up 
to a visible red heat, the softer the steel and the 
' ' lower" the temper. 

If the steel is by accident or otherwise reheated 
to too high a temperature when drawing the tem- 
per, the tool must be rehardened and the temper 
again drawn. 

When there is any doubt as to the proper heat 
at which to harden any piece of steel it is much 
better to harden at too low rather than too high a 
heat. If hardened at too low a heat it may be 
reheated and again hardened at a proper heat, but 
if too high a heat is used the first time there is no 
way of detecting the fact, and the tool will prob- 
ably break the first time used. 

As a general rule, a tool hardened at too high a 
heat will have a crumbly and scratchy cutting 
edge. 

Tempering Tools. — In practice tools may be di- 
vided for convenience in tempering into two gen- 
eral classes: 

First, tools which have only a cutting edge tem- 
pered, such as most lathe-tools, cold-chisels, etc. 

Second, tools tempered to a uniform hardness 
throughout, or for a considerable length, such as 
dies, reamers, taps, milling-cutters, etc. 



180 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Tempering Tools when Only an Edge is Hardened 
= — Cold-chisel. — The method of tempering a cold- 
chisel will serve as an example of the tempering 
of tools in the first class, the only difference in 
the tempering of various tools in this class being 
the temperature to which the tools are reheated, as 
shown by the ' 'temper color." 

A table showing the temperatures to which 
various tools should be reheated after hardening to 
properly "draw the temper," together with the so- 
called "temper colors," or color of scale, corre- 
sponding to these temperatures, is given on page 
248. 

After the chisel has been forged it should be 
allowed to cool until black. The cutting end is 
then heated to the proper hardening heat for two 
or three inches back from the edge, care being 
taken not to heat the steel above the hardening heat. 
(Steel should always be hardened at a rising heat.) 
The heated end is then hardened by cooling about 
two inches of the point in cold water, the end being 
left in the water just long enough to cool it. The 
chisel is then withdrawn from the water and the 
end polished with a piece of emery-paper, old grind- 
stone, or something of that character. 

As part of the chisel is still red-hot the heat from 
this hot part will gradually reheat the cold end, 
thus "drawing the temper." 'Temper colors" 
will begin to show next the * heated part, and as 
the cold end is reheated the band of colors will 
move toward the point of the chisel. When a deep 
bluish-purple color shows at the cutting edge the 



TOOL-STEEL WORK. l8l 

tool is again cooled in order to prevent further 
reheating and softening of the steel 
. Should part of the chisel be still red-hot when 
the end is cooled the second time, then only the 
end should be dipped in the water and the tool held 
there until all of the chisel is black, when the entire 
length may be cooled. 

If it were a lathe-tool being tempered the process 
would be the same excepting the tool should be 
cooled the second time when the yellow scale appears 
at the cutting edge. 

When hardening the ends of tools as described 
above, the tool while in the water should be kept 
in constant motion to prevent cooling the steel 
along a sharp line, as well as to keep up a circula- 
tion of water around ths cooling metal. 

Tempering Tools of the Second Class (Hardened 
all Through). — Tools of the second class (those of 
uniform hardness throughout) may be tempered as 
follows : The whole tool is first heated to a uniform 
hardening heat and cooled completely, thus harden- 
ing it throughout. The surface is then polished 
bright and the temper drawn by laying the tool on 
a piece of red-hot iron until the surface shows the 
desired color, generally dark yellow or light brown 
for such tools as taps, dies, milling-cutters, etc. 

While reheating on the iron the tool should be 
turned almost constantly, otherwise the parts in 
contact with the iron will become overheated, and 
consequently too soft, before the other parts are 
hot enough. 

Sometimes the reheating is done on a bath of 



182 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

melted lead or heated sand. Large pieces are 
sometimes ' ' drawn ' ' over a slow fire or on a sheet 
of iron laid over the fire. 

Recalescence. — There is a peculiar fact which 
helps to determine the proper hardening temper- 
ature of a piece of steel. If a piece of steel be 
heated to about a bright-red heat and allowed to 
cool, it will cool gradually until a temperature is 
reached at which it seems to grow hotter; that is, 
it grows darker in color, and then, when the critical 
temperature is reached, it becomes lighter for an 
instant and then gradually cools down. The tem- 
perature at which this seeming reheating takes 
place is about the proper hardening heat. 

This phenomenon is known as "Recalescence." 
An attempt is made in Fig. 231 to illustrate the 






Fig. 231. 



action of the heated bar at the point of recales- 
cence. A shows the heated bar as it comes from 
the fire — the hottest part showing lightest. At 
B the steel has cooled slightly and the heat of 
recalescence begins to show at the light point about 
the centre of the bar. At C the first streak has 



TOOL-STEEL WORK. I 83 

shifted somewhat and the end begins apparently 
to reheat, this second streak gradually moving up 
as illustrated at D, E, and F, until at G the bar 
has passed the critical temperature and cools down 
normally. 

This illustration is somewhat the same ai that 
shown by Howe in his "Metallurgy of Steel," 
which gives an excellent explanation of this phe- 
nomenon. 

The temperature at which this reheating occurs 
depends upon the amount of carbon in the steel, 
being higher for the lower carbon steel, and it is 
at about this temperature that the steel will harden 
properly. 

The hardening heat of steel is often described 
as a "cherry -red" heat. This term is very mis- 
leading and means very little. Such an author- 
ity as Metcalf says : ' ' Cherries are all shades from 
very light yellow to almost black; and 'cherry' 
heat seems to mean almost any of these various 
colors." 

It is a good plan when taking the steel from the 
fire to hold it for an instant in the shadow of the 
forge, as the hardening heat may be distinguished 
with more certainty in this way. The color of the 
heat will appear quite different here than in the 
sunlight, and there is a better chance of obtain- 
ing uniform heat by judging in the shadow than 
in the open sunlight, which varies so much in in- 
tensity. 

Rate of Cooling — Different Hardening Baths. — The 
more quickly steel i f s cooled for a hardening heat 



1 84 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

(everything else being equal), the harder and more 
brittle the steel is made. 

Files, wanted very hard, are hardened by cooling 
in a bath of cold brine ; as the brine cools the steel 
faster than water the steel is left harder than if 
hardened in water. 

Springs wanted tough and not very hard are 
cooled in oil, as oil cools much slower than water. 

Sometimes articles delicately shaped and liable; 
to crack when hardening are cooled in water having 
a thin film of oil on top ; the oil sticks to the steel 
as it is plunged into the water and the steel is not 
cooled quite as quickly as in pure water. 

The faster steel is cooled the more danger there 
is of cracking. 

Heating and Cooling — Importance of Uniform 
Heating. — The greatest care must be taken when 
hardening to have the steel uniformly heated. It 
must not be left in the fire one minute longer than 
is necessary to accomplish this ; but it must be uni- 
formly heated or the results are liable to be disas- 
trous. Take a milling-cutter, for example, with 
sharp-pointed, projecting teeth. The points of 
these teeth may become much hotter than the body 
of the cutter while being heated. If dipped while 
the points are hotter, they are almost certain to 
crack off. 

Too much importance can not be attached to uni- 
form heating. It is safe to say that probably the 
failure of three-quarters of the work spoiled in hard- 
ening is caused by improper heating. 

When it is necessary to heat milling-cutters and 



TOOL-STEEL WORK. 1 85 

flat tools in an open fire, it is a good plan to lay a 
piece of thin, flat iron on the fire and heat the steel 
on this. The steel does not then come in direct 
contact with the fire and may be more uniformly 
heated. 

For heating taps, small-end mills, etc., a piece of 
pipe may be laid through the fire and the tools 
heated in this. The pipe forms a crude muffle, 
which is very satisfactory for such work. 

The most satisfactory way to harden is to use a 
gas-furnace, but this is not always obtainable. 

Lead Hardening and Tempering. — A bath of lead 
is frequently used for heating both when hardening 
and drawing the temper. 

When hardening the lead is heated red-hot (hard- 
ening heat of the steel) and the tools to be hardened 
are held in the lead until heated to the proper tem- 
perature. 

The top of the hot lead is kept covered with char- 
coal to prevent oxidation, otherwise, the lead 
when exposed to the air would be rapidly oxidized 
and wasted. 

The steel is cooled in the ordinary way. 

This is a very satisfactory way to harden, as the 
steel may be very uniformly heated. For small 
work the lead may be heated in an ordinary ladle; 
for larger pieces some special arrangement is neces- 
sary. 

When drawing the temper the lead is not heated 
as hot as when hardening, and the pieces to be tem- 
pered are laid on top of the melted lead. The 
steel, being lighter than lead, will float on top and 



J 86 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

may then be easily watched during the heating. 
The pieces to be tempered are polished and heated 
until the proper colors appear — the same as when 
heated in the ordinary way. 

Warping in Cooling. — When heated steel is cooled 
it contracts, and unless contracting takes place 
uniformly on all sides the piece is liable to be 
warped, or sprung, out of shape. If, for instance, 
a long, thin, flat piece of steel were to be hardened 
by dipping into the cooling bath edgewise or flat- 
wise it would probably spring out of shape. If 
dipped endwise the piece would be cooled from all 
sides at once and would stand a better chance of 
coming out of the cooling bath straight. 

As a general rule, it is better to dip cylindrical 
and long thin pieces endwise ; round, thin discs and 
square flat pieces edgewise. 

Cooling Thin Flat Work. — Very thin flat work of 
uniform thickness is easily hardened as follows: 
The piece is heated to a hardening heat and cooled 
between two heavy plates of iron having flat faces 
smeared with oil. The piece is laid on one plate 
and the other quickly laid on top. This leaves the 
work hard and very true and flat. Pieces which 
would be warped all out of shape if cooled in water 
or oil may be easily hardened in this way. The 
temper is drawn in the ordinary way. 

Hardening Files — Straightening Long Thin Work. 
— The hardening of files is a good example of the 
treatment of long thin work; and the method em- 
ployed may be used to advantage for many other 
pieces. 



TOOL-STEEL WORK. 1 87 

The files are heated in a pot of red-hot lead. They 
are placed in this pot on end, and when properly 
heated are plunged end first (being held in a verti- 
cal position) into a vat of brine. 

The files neaily always warp somewhat when 
hardened, and when the warping is slight are 
straightened as follows: Across the top of the 
brine vat are fastened two wooden strips about two 
inches apart, joined by two iron pins about six 
inches from each other. The hardener drawls his 
file from the brine before it is entirely cold. The 
metal has just heat enough left to cause the water 
on the surface of the steel to disappear almost in- 
stantly. The file is then placed between the pins, 
under one and over the other, with the concave 
side up, as shown in Fig. 232, which shows one of 




Fig. 232. 

•the side strips removed. The' hardener then bears 
down on the end of the file, springing it straight, 
and at the same time pours some of the cold brine 
on top of the concave part. This will generally 
straighten out the file and leave it perfectly true. 
Of course if the files are too badly warped there is 
nothing to do but reheat, straighten, and harden 
again. 

Bad Shape to Harden. — There are some shapes 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 




Fig. 233. 



which are very difficult to harden. Fig. 233 shows a 

sectional view of a steel bear- 
ing which should be hardened 
very hard. The body of the 
bearing is thick and contains 
proportionately a large vol- 
ume of metal, while the flange is very thin and light 
and joins the body in a sharp angle, making a bad 
shape to harden. The thin flange cools almost 
instantly as it strikes the water, while the body 
takes some seconds to cool and by that time the 
flange is set. As the body contracts in cooling it 
pulls away from the flange, cracking in the sharp 
corner. 

Of course shapes like this will not always crack, 
but there is always a strong tendency to do so when 
a thin body of metal joins a thick one with a sharp 
corner between the two parts. This danger can be 
lessened by leaving a fillet in the corner as shown in 
the side sketch. This equalizes the strain some- 
what by not leaving a distinct line between the 
thick and thin parts. 

Milling-cutter teeth when made with a sharp 
angle at the bottom are liable to crack in harden- 
ing. If left with a slight fillet between them they 
very rarely crack if properly heated. 

Tempering Springs — Blazing Off. — Spring temper- 
ing done in oil is a good example of work where 
the temperature of the reheating is determined 
independently of the "temper colors." 

This method of tempering springs is known as 
"blazing," and gives about as reliable results as 



TOOL-STEEL WORK. 1 89 

any, on a small scale, for ordinary work. The 
spring is heated to a hardening heat and cooled in 
oil. To draw the temper, the spring, still wet with 
the oil, is reheated (ordinarily in the blaze of the 
forge) until the oil blazes up and then plunged for 
an instant into the oil-bath and again reheated until 
it blazes. This is continued until the oil blazes 
uniformly over the entire spring at the same time. 

Springs are generally not uniform in thickness, 
and the thin parts heat more quickly than the 
thicker. This momentary plunge into the oil cools 
the thin parts somewhat and affects very little the 
thicker parts. As the reheating is continued all 
parts of the spring are thus brought to the same 
temperature at the same time. If the reheating 
were continued without this partial cooling, by the 
time the thicker parts were hot enough to have the 
proper temper, the thinner parts would be heated 
to too high a temperature and have no temper left. 

Animal oil, and not mineral oil, should be used 
for this kind of work, as the mineral oil is too uncer- 
tain in its composition and will sometimes blaze at 
one temperature, sometimes at another, while the 
animal oil is fairly uniform in its composition and 
generally blazes at about the same temperature. 
Lard- or fish-oil is a good material for this purpose. 

Another way of tempering springs (which is 
rather risky but which is sometimes used) is to 
harden the spring in the ordinary way in water. 
It is then reheated over the fire, and to test the 
temperature from time to time a dry, pine splinter 
is scraped over the edge of the spring. As soon as 



I90 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

the minute shavings thus made will catch fire the 
right temperature is supposed to be reached, the 
burning of the wood in this case taking the place 
of the burning oil mentioned above. 

Sometimes when no pine splinters are convenient 
even the hammer-handle is made to serve the pur- 
pose. 

These last are not processes to be recommended, 
but are given as illustrations of how the tempera- 
ture of reheating for drawing the temper may be 
determined in a variety of ways, viz., by the blue 
color of the scale ; by the blazing of the oil ; by the 
burning of the wood. 

Hardening to Leave Soft Center. — Another method 
of tempering used for milling-cutters and taps 
which has proved very satisfactory is as follows : 

The tools are heated in the ordinary way and are 
cooled in water, but are not left in the water long 
enough to become completely cold, being drawn 
out of the water as soon as the "singing" stops. 
(When red-hot metal strikes water the water in 
immediate contact with the metal starts to boil, 
and this boiling produces a decided humming or 
singing noise and a throbbing sensation easily felt 
through the tongs. This ceases when the outside 
of the metal cools to about the temperature of 
boiling water.) 

When the tool is drawn out of the water it is in- 
stantly plunged into lard-oil and left there for a 
very short time (depending upon the size of the 
tool) and then withdrawn. It is then held in the 
flame of the forge or near the fire until the oil on 



TOOL-STEEL WORK. 191 

the outside just commences to smoke, when it is 
again plunged for an instant into the oil and again 
reheated, this being continued until the oil smokes 
evenly all over the tool, when the tempering is 
complete and the tool may be cooled off. 

The object of the method is this : The first cool- 
ing in water hardens the outside and cutting edges 
of the tool. The tool is then taken from the water 
and plunged into oil while the inside is still com- 
paratively hot. As the oil conducts the heat more 
slowly than water, the cooling of the tool is con- 
tinued in the oil, thus leaving the center rather 
tougher than if hardened in water. But even here 
the metal is not completely cooled, but taken from 
the oil-bath while there is still some heat left in the 
center. This heat in the center helps to draw the 
temper of the outside, and consequently the tool 
is reheated much quicker than if entirely cooled. 
The smoking oil serves to indicate the proper tem- 
perature to which the reheating should be carried. 

With a little practice the tool can be withdrawn 
from the oil-bath while there is still heat enough 
left in the central part to draw the temper. In 
this way no reheating in the fire is necessary, the 
tool being simply taken from the oil, allowed to 
reheat itself until the oil commences to smoke, 
and then plunged in water to prevent further re- 
heating. 

Annealing. — It may be said that annealing is the 
reverse of hardening.' To go back to first princi- 
ples : If a piece of steel be heated to a proper ' ' hard- 
ening heat" and cooled very suddenly, the steel is 



192 TORGE-PRACTICE. 

left very hard. The faster it is cooled, the harder 
the steel. On the other hand, if the steel be cooled 
from this hardening heat very slowly it is left soft, 
and the slower it is cooled the softer it becomes. 
This softening process of heating and cooling slowly 
is known as annealing, and steel so treated is called 
annealed steel. 

Water Annealing. — The quickest way of anneal- 
ing is what is known as ' ' water annealing. ' ' In 
doing this the steel is heated until it just shows 
very dull red when held in a dark place, and is then 
cooled in water. This method leaves the steel soft 
enough to be worked, but not as soft as it would be 
if heated to a hardening heat and cooled very 
slowly. 

A bar of steel if hammered until cooled below a 
red heat is rather hard,. and can be made somewhat 
softer and put in a better condition to work by 
water annealing. 

Water annealing is quite often used for work of 
the following nature: A drill or tap is sometimes 
broken off in a piece of work and must be softened 
before it can be removed. Such work is generally 
wanted in a hurry, and water annealing is resorted 
to to soften the broken piece. 

Soapy water gives good results for water anneal- 
ing. 

Annealing at the Forge. — A common way of an- 
nealing is to bury the heated steel in the cinders 
on the forge and keep it there until it is cold. This 
method is very satisfactory for ordinary work. Still 
another way, and about the most satisfactory, is 



TOOL-STEEL WORK. 1 93 

to bury the metal in a box filled with common lime. 
The steel cools slowly in this, and is left in very 
good shape for working. 

The object in each case is to cool the metal as 
slowly as possible by keeping the air from it, as heat 
is lost to the air very rapidly. When the steel is 
buried in some material which does not conduct 
heat readily, it of course cools very slowly and is 
left that much softer. 

Box Annealing. — Sometimes a piece of polished 
steel must be annealed without raising any scale on 
the surface, such as would be left by any of the 
methods described before. To do this the air must 
be kept from the metal, both while it is being 
heated and while cooling. The steel can be buried 
in an iron box, filled with ground bone, burned 
leather, or other carbonaceous materials and sealed 
air-tight. The box may be slowly heated to the 
right temperature and allowed to cool very slowly, 
the steel being removed from the box after it is 
cold. 

There is a patented process for annealing polished 
steel which is said to leave the metal as bright and 
polished as it was before annealing. The method 
is about as follows: The pieces to be annealed are 
placed in a piece of large pipe having a cap on one 
end; into this cap is screwed a small gas-pipe 
which extends back through to the outside of the 
furnace. When the pieces are all in the large pipe, 
a second cap is screwed on the open end. This 
cap has a small hole drilled in it. While the large 
pipe containing the steel is being heated gas is run 



194 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

into it through the small gas-pipe. This gas fills 
the pipe and escapes and burns at the small hole 
through the second cap. 

Ordinary illuminating-gas is used. Oxygen is 
necessary to form scale on the steel, and as the gas 
(containing very little or no oxygen) which fills 
the pipe drives out the air, there is no oxygen left 
to form scale and discolor the steel, consequently 
the steel comes out of the pipe as bright as when 
it went in. The pipe, of course, is kept full of gas 
until the steel is cold. 

Mr. William Metcalf, in his book on Steel, gives 
as a substitute for the above-patented process 
(known as the Jones process) the following method 
(this description is taken verbatim from his book) : 
' ' Let a pipe be made like a Jones pipe without a 
hole in the cap or a gas-pipe in the end. To charge 
it first throw a handful of resin into the bottom of 
the pipe and screw on the cap. The cap is a loose 
fit. Now roll the whole into the furnace ; the resin 
will be volatilized at once, fill the pipe with carbon 
or hydrocarbon gases, and with the air long before 
the steel is hot enough to be attacked. 

The gas will cause an outward pressure, and may 
be seen burning as it leaks through the joint at the 
cap. This prevents air from coming in contact 
with the steel. This method is as efficient as the 
Jones plan as far as perfect heating and easy man- 
agement are concerned. It reduces the scale on 
the surfaces of the pieces, leaving them a dark- 
gray color and covered with fine carbon or soot. 
For annealing blocks it is handier and cheaper than 



TOOL-STEEL WORK. I95 

the Jones plan, but it will not do for polishing sur- 
faces." 

File blanks (the shaped pieces of stock ready to 
have the teeth cut) are annealed by packing them 
in cast-iron boxes ^\" or 4" long, 1" deep, and 8" 
or 10" wide, with just a little sprinkling of some 
carbonaceous material over the steel. The box is 
closed by an iron cover which fits inside the box 
and comes about an inch and a half below the top 
of the sides. 

The box is made practically air-tight by packing 
fire-clay (the damp dust or grit which collects be- 
neath the grindstones is sometimes used) around 
the inside the box on top of the cover. 

These boxes are placed in a furnace and heated 
for about forty-eight hours and then drawn out 
and covered with sheet-iron covers lined with 
asbestos, where they cool very slowly. A box put 
under a cover Saturday is expected to be used 
Tuesday; and the steel is sometimes so hot even 
then that it can hardly be touched. This method 
leaves the steel very soft and easy to work. 

Steel is sometimes annealed by bringing it up to 
a proper heat in a furnace and then allowing the 
steel and the furnace to cool off together. 

Annealing is done in pits by building up a fire- 
brick pit, filling it with steel, either in piles or 
packed in boxes, leaving spaces for the burning gas 
to circulate between the piles or boxes, covering 
the whole over with a fire-brick -lined cover, and 
heating the pit up to the proper temperature by 
burning gas in it. This gas is admitted through 



196 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

openings in the side of the pit left for the purpose. 
When the steel has been heated evenly to the proper 
temperature, the gas is turned off and the pit and 
its contents slowly cooled. This is the method 
used for annealing steel from which tin-plate is 
made. 

The underlying principle is the same in any case 
— the steel is first heated uniformly to a " harden- 
ing heat" and then cooled slowly, the slower the 
better. Sometimes, to prevent oxidation, precau- 
tions are taken to keep the air away from the steel 
both during heating and cooling. 



CHAPTER XI. 

TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 

It is assumed that the general method of tem- 
pering as described before is understood, and only 
special directions will be given in particular cases 
in the following pages. 

Forging Heat. — Any tool-steel forging on which 
there is any great amount of work to be done 
should have the heavy forging and shaping done 
at a yellow heat. At this heat the metal works 
easily and properly, and the heavy pounding re- 
fines the grain and leaves the steel in proper condi- 
tion to receive a cutting edge. When a tool is 
merely to be smoothed off or finished, or forged to 
a very slight extent, the work should be done at a 
much lower heat, just above the hardening tem- 
perature. 

Very little hammering should be done at any 
heat below the hardening temperature. 

Cold-chisels. — The ordinary cold-chisel is so sim- 
ple in shape that no detail directions are necessary 
for forging. The stock should be heated to a yel- 
low heat and forged into shape and finished as 
smooth as possible. If properly forged the end, or 
edge, will bulge out, like Fig. 234. This should be 
nicked across with a sharp hot -chisel (but not cut 

197 



198 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

off), as shown at C, and broken off after the tool 
has been hardened. This broken edge will then 




Fig. 234. 

show the grain and indicate whether the steel has 
been hardened at a proper temperature. 

When hardening, the chisel should be heated red- 
hot as far back from the point as the line A, Fig. 
235. Great care must be taken to heat slowly 
/ — 1 enough to heat the thicker part of the 
chisel without overheating the point. If 
the point does become too hot, it should 
not be dipped in water to cool off, but 
allowed to cool in the air to below the 
hardening heat and then reheated more 
carefully. 
k When the chisel has been properly heated 
to the hardening heat, the end should be 
1 hardened in cold water back to the line B, 
Fig. 235. As soon as the end is cold the 
chisel should be withdrawn from the 
water and one side of the end polished 
off with a piece of emery or something 
of that nature, as described before. 

The part of the chisel from .4 to B will be still 
red-hot, and the heat from this part will gradually 



TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 1 99 

reheat the point of the tool. As the metal is re- 
heated the polished surface will change color, show- 
ing at first yellow, brown, and at last purple. As 
soon as the purple, almost blue color reaches the 
nick at the end, the chisel should again be cooled, 
this time completely. The waste end may now be 
snapped off and the grain examined. To test for 
proper hardness, try the end of the chisel with a 
fine file, which should scratch it slightly. If the 
grain is too coarse, the tool should be rehardened 
at a lower temperature, while if the metal is too 
soft, it should be rehardened at a higher tempera- 
ture. 

Cape-chisel. — The cape-chisel, illustrated in Fig. 
236, is used for cutting grooves and working at the 




bottom of narrow channels. The cutting edge A 
should be wider than any part of the blade back to 
B, which should be somewhat thinner in order that 
the blade may ' ' clear ' ' when working in a slot the 
width of A. 

The chisel is started by thinning down B over 
the horn of the anvil, as shown at A, Fig. 237. The 
finishing is done with a hammer or flatter in the 
manner illustrated at B. The chisel should not 
be worked flat on top of the anvil, as shown at C, 
as this knocks the blade out of shape. 



200 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



The cape-chisel is tempered the same as a cold- 
chisel. 




Fig. 237. 



Square- and Round-nose Cape-chisels. — The chisels 
are started in the same way as an ordinary cape- 
chisel, the ends being left somewhat more stubby. 

The end is then finished round or square, as 
shown in Fig. 238, and tempered the same as a 
cold-chisel. 

Round -nose cape -chisels are sometimes used to 
center drills, and are then called "centering" 
chisels. 

Lathe-tools in General. — The same general forms 
of lathe-tools are followed in nearly all shops ; but 
in different places the shapes are altered somewhat 
to suit individual tastes. 



TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 201 

Right- and Left-hand Tools. — Such tools as side 
tools, diamond points, etc., are generally made in 
pairs — that is, right- and left-handed. If a tool is 
made with the cutting edge on the left-hand side 
(as the tool is looked at from the top with the shank 




Fig. 238. 

of the tool nearest the observer), it would be called 
a right-hand tool. That is, a tool which begins its 
cut at the right-hand end of the piece and cuts 
towards the left is known as a right-hand tool; 
one commencing at the left-hand end and cutting 
towards the right would be known as a left-hand 
tool. 

The general shape of right- and left-hand tools 
for the same use is practically the same excepting 
that the cutting edges are on opposite sides. 

Round-nose and Thread Tools. — Round-nose and 
thread tools are practically alike, the difference 
being in the grinding of the end. The thread tool 
is sometimes made a little thinner at the point. 

The round-nose tool, Fig. 239, is so simple in 
shape that no description of the forging is neces- 
sary. Care must be taken to have proper ' ' clear- 
ance." The cutting is all done at or near the 



202 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



end, and the sides must be so shaped that they 
"clear" the upper edge of the end. In other 
words, the upper edge of the shaped end must be 




Fig. 239. 

wider at every point than the lower edge, as shown 
by the section. 

For hardening, the tool should be heated about 
as far as the line A, Fig. 240, and cooled up to the 




Fig. 240. 



line B. Temper color of scale should be light yel- 
low. 

Cutting-off Tools. — Cutting-off tools are forged 
with the blade either on one side or in the center of 
the stock. The easier way to make them is to forge 



TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 



203 



the blade with one side flush with the side of the 
tool. A tool forged this way is shown in Fig. 241. 




The cutting edge is the extreme tip of the blade, 
and the cutt ng is done by forcing the tool straight 
into the work, the edge cutting a narrow groove. 
The only part of the tool which should touch the 
work is the extreme end, or cutting edge; there- 
fore the th ckest part of the blade must be the cut- 
ting edge, the sides gradually tapering back in all 
directions and becoming thinner, as shown in the 
drawing, A being wider than B. 

The cutting edge should be slightly above the 
level of the top of the tool, or, in other words, the 
blade should slant slightly upwards. 

The clearance angle at the end of the tool is 
about right for lathe-tools ; but for plainer tools the 
end should be made more nearly square, about as 
shown by the line X — X. 

For hardening, the heat should extend to about 
the line C — C, and the end should be cooled to 
about the line D — D. Temper color should be light 
yellow. 

The tool may be forged by starting with a fuller 
cut, as shown at A, Fig. 242. The blade is roughly 



204 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



forged into shape with a sledge, or, on light stock, 
a hand-hammer, working over the edge of the anvil 
to form the shoulder in the manner shown at B. 
This leaves the end bulged out and in rough shape, 




Fig 242. 

similar to C. The end should be trimmed off with 
a sharp hot-chisel along the dotted line. 

The finishing may be done over the corner of the 
anvil, using a hand-hammer or natter, in the same 
way as when starting the tool; or a set -hammer 
may be used, as shown at D. 

Care must be taken to have proper clearance on 
all sides of the blade. It is a good plan to upset 
the end of the blade slightly by striking a few light 
blows the last thing on the end at the cutting 
edge, then adding a little clearance. 



TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 



205 



When a tool is wanted with the blade forged in 
the center of the shank, the two shoulders are 
formed by using a set-hammer and working at the 
edge of the anvil face, letting the corner of the 
anvil shape one shoulder while the set-hammer is 
forming the other. This process has been de- 
scribed before under the general method of form- 
ing double shoulders. 

Bent Cutting-off Tool. — The bent cutting-off tool, 




Fig. 243. 

Fig. 243, is made and tempered exactly the same 
as the straight tool, excepting that the blade is 
bent backward toward the shank through an angle 
of about 45 degrees. 




Fig. 244. 

Boring Tool. — The boring tool, illustrated in Fig. 
244, needs no particular description. The length 
of the thin shank depends upon the depth of the. 



206 .FORGE-PRACTICE. 

hole the tool is to be used in, but, as a general 
rule, should not be made any longer than necessary. 

This thin shank is started with a fuller cut and 
drawn out in much the same way as the cutting-off 
tool was started. 

The cutting edge is at the end of the small, bent 
nose. The only part of the tool required tempered 
is the bent nose, or end, which should be given the 
same temper color as the other lathe-tools — light 
yellow. 

Internal Thread Tool. — This tool, used for cut- 
ting screw threads on the inside of a hole, is forged 
to the same shape as the boring tool described 
above, the end being afterward ground somewhat 
differently. 

Diamond-points. — These tools are made right and 
left. 



i i i n$> 



Fig 245. 




There are several good methods of making these 
tools; but the one given below is about as quick 
and easy as any, and requires the use of no tools 
excepting the hand-hammer and sledge. 

The diamond-point is started as shown at A, Fig. 
246, by holding the stock at an angle of about 45 
degrees over the outside edge of the anvil. It is 
first slightly nicked by being driven down with a 



TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 



207 



sledge against the corner, and the bent end down 
to the dotted position with a few blows, as indi- 
cated by the arrow. 





LA 



Fig. 246. 



This end is further bent by holding and striking 
as illustrated at B. The diamond shape is given 
to the end by swinging the tool back and forth and 



208 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



striking as shown at C, which gives a side and end 
view of tool in position on the anvil. 

The tool is finished by trimming the end with 
a sharp hot-chisel and so bending the end as to 
throw the top of the nose slightly to one side, giv- 
ing the necessary side ' 'rake" as shown in Fig. 245. 

When hardening, the end should be dipped as 
shown at D and the temper drawn to show light- 
yellow scale. 

Tools like the above made of stock as large as 
\" Xi" may be made using the hand-hammer alone. 




Fig. 247. 

Side Tools. — Side tools, or side-finishing tools, as 
they are also called, are generally made about the 
shape shown in Fig. 247. These tools are made 
right and left and are also made bent. The bent 



TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 209 

side tools leave the ends forged the same; but the 
blade is afterward bent toward the shank, cutting 
edge out, at an angle of about 45 degrees. 

The side tool may be started by making a fuller 
cut as shown at A, Fig. 247, near the end of the 
stock. 

The part of the stock marked x is then drawn 
out by using a fuller turned in the opposite direc- 
tion, working the stock down into the shape shown 
at B. The blade is smoothed up with a set-ham- 
mer and trimmed with a hot-chisel along the dotted 
lines on C. The curved end of the blade is smoothed 
up and finished with a few blows of the hand-ham- 
mer. 

The tool is finished by giving the proper ' ' offset ' ' 
to the top edge of the blade. This is done by plac- 
ing the tool, flat-side down, with the blade ex- 
tending over, and the end of the blade next the 
shank about one-eighth of an inch beyond, the 
outside edge of the anvil. A set-hammer is placed 
on the blade close up to the shoulder and slightly 
tipped, so that the face of the hammer touches the 
thin edge of the blade only, as illustrated at D. 
One or two light blows with the sledge will give 
the necessary offset, and after straightening the 
blade the tool is ready for tempering. 

It is very important on these tools, as well as on 
all others, to have the cutting edge as smooth and 
true as possible; it is, therefore, best, the very last 
thing, to smooth up this part of a tool, using the 
hand- or set-hammer. Above all things, the cut- 
ting edge must not be rounded off, as this necessi- 



2IO FORGE-PRACTICE. 

tates grinding down the edge until the rounded 
part has been completely ground off. 

While the side tool is being heated for temper- 
ing, it should be placed in the fire with the cutting 
edge up. It is more easy to avoid overheating of 
the edge in this way. 

The blade is hardened by dipping in water as 
shown at E, only a small part of back, A, of the 
blade extending above the water and remaining 
red-hot. The tool is taken from the water, quickly 
polished on the flat side, and the temper drawn to 
show a very light yellow. The same color should 
show the entire length of the cutting edge. If the 
color shows darker at one end, it indicates that 
that end of the blade was not cooled enough, and 
the tool should be rehardened, this time tipping 
the tool in such a way as to bring that end of the 
blade which was before too soft deeper in the water. 
Centering Tool. — The centering tool, Fig. 248, 
used for starting holes on face-plate and chuck 

work, is started in 

H (1 y much the same way 

as the boring tool. 
The end is flattened 
out thin and trimmed 
into shape with a hot- 
chisel. The right- 
hand side of the end should be cut from the top side 
and the left-hand from the other, leaving the end 
the same shape as a flat drill. 

Tempered the same as other lathe-tools. 
Finishing Tool. — This tool, Fig. 249, is started by 




Fig. 248. 



TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 



21 I 



CILZLX1 



bending the end of the stock down over the edge of 
the anvil in the same way 
as when starting the diamond- 
point. 

The end is flattened and 
widened by working with a 
hand- or set-hammer, as FlG - 24 9- 

shown at A, Fig. 250. This leaves the end bent 
out too nearly straight; but, after being shaped, it 
is bent into the proper angle, in the manner illus- 





FlG. 250. 



trated at B. The blade will then probably be bent 
somewhat like C, but a few blows with a hammer, at 
the point and in the direction indicated by the 
arrow, will straighten this out, leaving it like D. 
After trimming and smoothing, the tool is ready 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



for tempering. The blade should be tempered to 
just show the very lightest yellow at cutting edge. 

When a tool of this kind is to be used on a planer, 
the front end should make more nearly a right angle 
with the bottom; or, in other words, there should 
be less front "rake" or "clearance." 

Flat Drills. — The flat drill, Fig. 251, needs no 



Fie. 251 

description, as the forging and shaping are very 
simple. The end should be trimmed the same as 
the centering tool. The size of the tool is deter- 
mined by the dimension A , this being the same size 
as the hole the drill is intended to make; thus, if 
this dimension were 1 " , the drill would be known 
as an inch drill. 

The temper is drawn to show a dark-yellow scale. 

Hammers. — As a general rule, when making ham- 
mers of all kinds by hand the eye is made first. A 
bar of steel of the proper size and convenient length 
for handling is used, and the hammer forged on 
the end, as much forging and shaping as possible 
being done before cutting the hammer from the 
bar. 

The hole for the eye is punched in the usual way 
at the proper distance from the end of the bar, 
using a punch having a handle (Fig. 70) . 

The nose of the punch is slightly smaller but has 
the same shape as the eye is to finish. Great care 



TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 213 

must be taken to have the hole true and straight. 
It is very difficult and sometimes impossible to 
straighten up a crooked hole. 

After punching the eye, the sides of the stock 
are generally bulged out, and to prevent knock- 
ing the eye out of shape while forging down this 
bulge a drift-pin, Fig. 252, is used. This is made 




SECTION AT 
A-A 



of tool-steel and tapers from near the center to- 
ward each end, one end being somewhat smaller 
than the other. The center of the pin is the same 
shape and size as the eye is to be in the hammer. 

When the bar has been heated the drift-pin is 
driven tightly into the hole and the bulge forged 
down in the same way (B, Fig. 254) as a solid bar 
would be treated. When the drift-pin becomes 
heated it must be driven out and cooled, and under 
no circumstances should the bar be heated with 
the pin in the hole. The pin should always be 
used when there is danger of knocking the eye out 
of shape. 

The steel used for hammers, and ' ' battering 
tools" in general, should be of a lower temper (con- 
tain less carbon) than that used for lathe-tools. 

The eye of a hammer should not be of uniform 
size throughout, but should be larger at the ends 



214 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



and taper slightly toward the center, as illustrated 
in Fig. 253, which shows a section of a hammer cut 
through the center of the eye. 
When the eye is made in this 
way (slightly contracted at 
the middle), the hammer- 
handle may be driven in 




Fig. 253. 



tightly from one end ; then by driving one or more 
wedges in the end of the handle it is held firmly 
in place and there is no chance for the head to 
work up or down. 

Cross-pene, Blacksmith's or Riveting Hammer. — A 
hammer of this kind is shown at C, Fig. 6. 




Fig. 254. 



The different steps in the process of forging are 
illustrated in Fig. 254. First the eye is punched 
as shown at A. The pene is then drawn out and 



TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 



215 



shaped and a cut started at the point where the 
end of the hammer will come (C), the drift-pin 
being used, as shown at B, while forging the metal 
around the eye. 

The other end of the hammer is then worked up 
into shape, using a set-hammer as indicated at D. 

When the hammer is as nearly finished as may be 
while still on the bar, it is cut off with a hot-chisel, 
leaving the end as nearly square and true as pos- 
sible. 

After squaring up and truing the face the ham- 
mer is tempered. 

For tempering, the whole hammer is heated in a 
slow fire to an even hardening heat; while harden- 
ing, the tongs should grasp the side of the hammer, 
one jaw being inserted in the eye. 

Both ends should be tempered, this being done 
by hardening first one end, then the other. 

The small end is hardened first by cooling, as 
shown in Fig. 255. As soon as this end has cooled, 
the position is instantly 
reversed and the large 
end of the hammer dipped 
in the water and hard- 
ened. While the large 
end is cooling, the smaller 
one is polished and the 
temper color watched for. 
When a dark-brown scale 
appears at the end the Fig. 255. 

hammer is again reversed, bringing the large end 
uppermost and the pene in the water. The face 




2 I 6 FORGE-PRACTICE . 

end is polished and tempered in the same way as 
the small end. If the large end is properly hard- 
ened before the temper color appears on the small 
end, the hammer may be taken completely out of 
the water and the large end also polished, the 
colors being watched for on both ends at once. As 
soon as one end shows the proper color it is promptly 
dipped in water, the other end following as soon as 
the color appears there. 

Under no circumstances should the eye be cooled 
while still red-hot. 

For some special work hammer-faces must be 
very hard; but for ordinary usage the temper as 
given above is very satisfactory. 

Ball Pene-hammer. — The ball pene-hammer, Fig. 
5, is started by punching the eye. 

The hammer is roughed out with two fullers in 
the manner illustrated at A, Fig. 256. 

The size of stock used should be such that it will 
easily round up to form the large end of the hammer. 

After the hammer is roughed out as shown at A, 
the metal around the eye is spread sidewise, using 
two fullers as illustrated at B, a set-hammer being 
used for finishing. This leaves the forging like C. 
The next step is to round and shape the ball, which 
is forged as nearly as possible to the finished shape. 

After doing this a cut is made in the bar where 
the face of the hammer will come, and the large end 
rounded up, leaving the work like D. 

The necked parts of the hammer each side of 
the eye are smoothed and finished with fullers of 
the proper size. Some hammers are made with 



TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 



217 



these necks round in section, but the commoner 
shape is octagonal. 

After smoothing off, the hammer is cut from the 
bar and the face forged true. Both ends are ground 
true and tempered. This hammer should be tem- 




FlG. 256. 



pered in the same way as described above for tem- 
pering the riveting-hammer. 

Ball pene-hammers may be made with the steam- 
hammer in practically the same way as described, 
only substituting round bars of steel for use in 
place of fullers. 

Sledges. — Sledges are made and tempered in the 
same general way as riveting-hammers. Sledges 
may be forged and finished almost entirely under 
the steam-hammer. 



2 1 8 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Blacksmith's Cold-chisel. — This tool (Fig. 2) is 
forged in practically the same way as the cross-pene 
hammer described before. The end, of course, is 
drawn out longer and thinner, the thin edge com- 
ing parallel with the eye instead of at right angles 
to it. 

The cutting edge only of the chisel is tempered. 
The temper should be drawn to show a bluish 
scale just tinged with a little purple. Under no 
circumstances should the head of the chisel be 
hardened, as this would cause the end to chip 
when in use and might cause a serious accident. 

The tool shown in Fig. 192 may be used to ad- 
vantage when making hot- or cold-chisels with the 
steam-hammer. By using this tool, as illustrated 
in Fig. 193, the blade of the chisel may be quickly 
drawn out and finished. 

Hot-chisel. — After forming the eye of the hot- 
chisel (Fig. 2), the blade is started by making the 

two fuller cuts, as il- 
lustrated in Fig. 257. 
-^ The end is drawn 
^''' down as indicated by 
the dotted lines. The 
257 ' head is shaped and 

the chisel cut from the bar in the same way that 
the riveting-hammer was treated. 

This chisel should have its cutting edge tem- 
pered the same as that of the cold-chisel. 

Hardies. — Hardies such as shown in Fig. 2 
should be started by drawing out the stem. This 
stem is drawn down to the right size to fit the 




TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 219 

hardy-hole in the anvil and the piece cut from the 
bar. This is heated, the stem placed in the hole 
in the anvil, and the piece driven down into the 
hole and against the face of the anvil, thus forming 
a good shoulder between the stem and the head of 
the hardy. 

After forming the shoulder, the blade is worked 
out, starting by using two fullers in the same way 
as when starting the hot-chisel blade. . 

The cutting edge should be given the same tem- 
per as a cold-chisel. 

Blacksmith's Punches. — Punches shaped similar 
to Fig. 70 are started the same manner as the hot- 
chisel, excepting that 
the fuller cuts are 
made on four sides, as 
shown in Fig. 258. 
The end is then drawn 
out to the shape Fig. 258. 

shown by the dotted 
lines. 

Temper same as cold-chisel. 

Set-hammers — Flatters. — The set-hammer, Fig. 
15, is so simple that no directions are necessary for 
shaping. The face only should be tempered and 
that should show a dark-brown or purple color. 

Flatters such as shown in Fig. 14 may be made 
by upsetting the end of a small bar, the upset part 
forming the wide face; or a bar large enough to 
form the face may be used and the head, or shank, 
drawn down. 

The eye should be punched after the face has been 




220 



FORGE -PRACTICE. 




Fig. 259. 



made. The face should be tempered to about a 

blue. 

When many are to be 
made a swage - block 
similar to Fig. 259 
should be used. Half 
only of the block is 
shown in the figure, the 
other half being cut away 
to show the shape of the 

hole which is the size of the finished natter. 

When using this block the stock is first cut to 

the proper length, heated, placed in the hole, and 

upset. 

Swages. — Swages may also be made in a block 

similar to the one used for the natter. The swage 

should be first upset in the block and the crease 

formed the last thing. The crease may be made 

with a fuller or a bar of round stock the proper 

size. 

Fullers. — Fullers are made in the same way as 

swages. 

All of these tools may be upset and forged under 

the steam-hammer, using the die, or swage, blocks 

as described above. The swage-blocks may be 

made of cast iron. 



CHAPTER XII. 

MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 

Shrinking. — When iron is heated it expands, and 
upon being cooled it contracts to practically its 
original size. 

This property is utilized in doing what is known 
as "shrinking." 




Fig. 260. 

A common example of this sort of work is illus- 
trated in Fig. 260, showing a collar "shrunk" on a 
shaft. The collar and shaft are made separately. 
The inside diameter of the hole through the collar 
is made slightly less than the outside diameter of 
the shaft. When the collar and shaft are ready 
to go together the collar is heated red-hot. The 
high temperature causes the metal to expand and 
thus increases the diameter of the hole, making 
it larger (if the sizes have been properly propor- 
tioned) than the outside diameter of the shaft. 
The collar is then taken from the fire, brushed 
clean of all ashes and dirt, and slipped on the shaft 



22 2 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

and into the proper position, where it is cooled as 
quickly as possible. This cooling causes the collar 
to contract and locks it firmly in place. 

If the collar be ah owed to cool slowly it will heat 
the shaft, which will expand and stretch the collar 
somewhat; then, as both cool together and con- 
tract, the collar will be loose on the shaft. 

This is the method used for shrinking tires on 
wheels. The tire is made just large enough to slip 
on the wheel when hot, but not large enough to go 
on cold. It is then heated, put in place, and 
quickly cooled. 

Couplings are frequently shrunk on shafts in this 
way. 

Brazing. — Brazing, it might be said, is soldering 
with brass. 

Briefly the process is as follows : The surfaces to 
be joined are cleaned thoroughly where they are to 
come in contact with each other. The pieces are 
then fastened together in the proper shape by 
binding with wire, or holding with some sort 
of clamp. The joint is heated, a flux (gener- 
ally borax) being added to prevent oxidation of 
the surfaces, and the "spelter" (prepared brass) 
sprinkled over the joint, the heat being raised until 
the brass melts and flows into the joint, making a 
union between the pieces. Ordinarily it requires a 
bright-red or dull-yellow heat to melt the brass 
properly. 

Almost any metal that will stand the heat can be 
brazed. Great care must be used when brazing 
cast iron to have the surfaces in contact properly 



MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 



223 



cleaned to start with, and then properly protected 
from the oxidizing influences of the air and fire 
while being heated. 

Brass wire, brass filings, or small strips of rolled 
brass may be used in place of the spelter. Brass 
wire in particular is very convenient to use in some 
places, as it can be bent into shape and held in place 
easily. 

A simple brazed joint is illustrated in Fig. 261, 
which shows a flange (in this case a large washer) 
brazed around the end of a pipe. It is not neces- 
sary to use any clamps or wires to hold the work 
together, as the joint may be made tight enough to 
hold the pieces in place. The joint should be tight 
enough in spots to hold the pieces together, but 
must be open enough to allow the melted brass to 
run between the two pieces. Where the pipe 
comes in contact with the flange the outside should 
be free from scale and filed bright, the inside of 
the flange being treated in the same way. 




Fig. 261. 




Fig. 262. 



When the pieces have been properly cleaned and 
forced together, a piece of brass wire should be 
bent around the pipe at the joint, as shown in Fig. 
262, and the work laid on the fire with the flange 



224 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

down. The fire should be a clean bright bed of 
coals. As soon as the work is in the fire the joint 
should be sprinkled with £he flux; in fact, it is a 
good plan to put on some of the flux before putting 
the work in the fire. Ordinary borax can be used 
as a flux, although a mixture of about three parts 
borax and one part sal ammoniac seems to give 
much better results. 

The heat should be gradually raised until the 
brass melts and runs all around and into the joint, 
when the piece should be lifted from the fire. 

The brazing could be done with spelter in place 
of the brass wire. If spelter were to be used the 
piece would be laid on the fire and the joint cov- 
ered with the flux as before. As soon as the flux 
starts to melt, the spelter mixed with a large 
amount of flux is spread on the joint and melted 
down as the brass wire was before. For placing 
the spelter when brazing it is convenient to have a 
sort of a long-handled spoon. This is easily made 
by taking a strip of iron about f " X \" three or four 
feet long and hollowing one end slightly with the 
pene end of the hammer. 

There are several grades of spelter which melt at 
different heats. Soft spelter melts at a lower heat than 
hard spelter, but does not make as strong a joint. 

Spelter is simply brass prepared for brazing in 
small flakes and can be bought ready for use. The 
following way has been recommended for the prep- 
aration of spelter : Soft brass is melted in a ladle 
and poured into a bucket rilled with water having 
in it finely chopped straw, the water being given a 



MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 



225 



swirling motion before pouring in the brass. The 
brass settles to the bottom in small particles. Care 
must be taken when melting the brass not to burn 
out the zinc. To avoid this, cover the metal in 
ladle with powdered charcoal or coal. When the 
zinc begins to burn it gives a brilliant flame and 
dense white smoke, leaving a deposit of white oxide 
of zinc. 

Another example of brazing is the T shown in 



o 
w? 







=*^= 



Fig. 263. 

Fig. 263. Here two pipes are to be brazed to each 
other in the form of an inverted T. 

A clamp must be used to hold the pieces in proper 
position while brazing, as one pipe is simply stuck 
on the outside of the 
other. A simple 
clamp is shown in Fig. 
264 consisting of a 
piece of flat iron hav- 
ing one hole near each 
end to receive the two 
small bolts, as illus- 
trated. This strip lies 
across the end of the 
pipe forming the short 
stem of the T, and the bent ends of the bolts hook 



2 26 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

into the ends of the bottom pipe. The whole is held 
together by tightening down on the nuts. 

The brazing needs no particular description, as 
the spelter or wire is laid on the joint and melted 
into place as before. 

A piece of this kind serves as a good illustration of 
the strength of a brazed joint. If a well-made 
joint of this kind be hammered apart, the short 
limb will sometimes tear out or pull off a section of 
the longer pipe, showing the braze to be almost as 
strong as the pipe. 

When using borax as a flux the melted scale 
should be cleaned (or scraped) from the work while 
still red-hot, as the borax when cold makes a hard, 
glassy scale which can hardly be touched with a 
file. The cleaning may be easily done by plunging 
the brazed piece, while still red-hot, into water. 
On small work the cleaning is very thoroughly done 
if the piece, while still red-hot, is dipped into melted 
cyanide of potassium and then instantly plunged 
into water. If allowed to remain in the cyanide 
many seconds the brass will be eaten off and the 
brazing destroyed. 

It is not always necessary when brazing wrought 
iron or steel to have the joint thoroughly cleaned; 
for careful work the parts to be brazed together 
should be bright and clean, but for rough work the 
pieces are sometimes brazed without any preparation 
whatever other than scraping off any loose dirt or scale. 

Pipe-bending. — There is one simple fact about 
pipe-bending which, if always carried in mind, 
makes it comparatively easy. 



MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 



227 



Let the full lines in Fig. 265 represent a cross- 
section of a piece of pipe before bending. Now 
suppose the pipe be heated and an attempt made 
to bend it without taking any precautions what- 





Fig. 265. 



Fig. 266 



ever. The concave side of the pipe will flatten 
down against the outside of the curve, leaving the 
cross-section something as shown by the dotted 
lines; that is, the top and bottom of the pipe will 
be forced together, while the sides will be pushed 
apart. In other words, the pipe collapses. 

If the sides can be prevented from bulging out 
while being bent it will stop the flattening together 
of the top and bottom. A simple way of doing 
this is to bend the pipe between two flat plates held 
the same distance apart as the outside diameter of 
the pipe (Fig. 266). Pipe can sometimes be bent 
in a vise in this way, the jaws of the vise taking 
the place of the flat plates mentioned above. 

Large pipe may be bent something in the follow- 
ing way: If the pipe is long and heavy the part to 
be bent should be heated, and then while one end is 



228 



FORGE-PRACTICE. 



supported, the other end is dropped repeatedly on 
the floor. The weight of the pipe will cause it to 
bend in the heated part. Fig. 267 illustrates this, 




Fig. 267. 

the solid lines showing the pipe as it is held before 
dropping and the dotted lines the shape it takes as 
it is dropped. 

As the pipe bends the sides, of course, bulge out, 
and the top and bottom tend to flatten together; 
but this is remedied by laying the pipe flat and 
driving the bulging sides together with a flatter. 

Another way of bending is to put the end of the 
pipe in one of the holes of a heavy swage-block (as 
illustrated in Fig. 268), the bend then being made 




Fig. 26S. 

by pulling over the free end. The same precau- 
tion must, of course, be taken as when bending in 
other ways. 

The fact that by preventing the sides of the pipe 
from bulging it may be made to retain its proper 



MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 



22g 



shape is particularly valuable when several pieces 
are to be bent just alike. In this case a jig is made 
which consists of two side plates, to prevent the 
sides of the pipe from bulging, and a block between 
these plates to give the proper shape to the curve. 
A piece of bent pipe which was formed in this 







Fig. 269. 

way is shown in Fig. 269, together with the jig 
used for bending it. 

The pipe was regular one-quarter-inch gas-pipe. 
The jig was made as follows: The sides were made 
of two pieces of board about i\" thick. Between 
these sides was a board, A, sawed to the shape of 
the inside curve of the bent pipe. This piece was 
slightly thicker than the outside diameter of the 
pipe (about l / Z2 " being added for clearance). The 
inside face of the sides and the edge of the block A 
were protected from the red-hot pipe by a thin 
sheet of iron tacked to them. 

A bending lever was made by bending a piece of 
|"Xi" stock into the shape of the outside of the 
pipe. This lever was held in place by a \" bolt 
passing through the sides of the jig, as shown. 



230 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

To bend the pipe it was heated to a yellow heat, 
put in the jig as indicated by the dotted lines and 
the lever pulled over, forcing the hot pipe to take 
the form of the block. 

A jig of this sort is easily and cheaply made and 
gives good service, although it is necessary some- 
times to throw a little water on the sides to prevent 
them from burning. 

Another common way of bending is to fill the 
pipe with sand. One end of the pipe to be bent is 
plugged either with a cap or a wooden plug driven 
in tightly. The pipe is filled full of sand and the 
other end closed up tight. The pipe may then be 
heated and bent into shape. It is necessary to have 
the pipe full of sand or it will do very little good. 

For very thin pipe the best thing is to fill with 
melted rosin. This, of course, can only be used 
when the tubing or pipe is very thin and is bent 
cold, as heating the pipe would cause the rosin to 
run out. 

Thin copper tubing may be bent in this way. 

A quite common form of pipe-bending jig is 
illustrated in Fig. 270. 

The outside edge of the semicircular casting has 
a groove in it that just fits half-way round the pipe. 
The small wheel attached to the lever has a cor- 
responding groove on its edge. When the two are 
in the position shown the hole left between them 
is the same shape and size as the cross-section of 
the pipe. 

To bend the pipe, the lever is swung to the ex- 
treme left, the end of the heated pipe inserted in 



MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 



231 



the catch at A (which has a hole in it the same size 
as the pipe), and the lever pulled back to the right, 
bending the pipe as it goes. 

The stem on the lower edge of the casting was 




Fig. 270. 



made to fit in a vise, where the jig was held while 
in operation. 

Annealing Copper and Brass. — Brass or copper 
may be softened or annealed by heating the metal 
to a red heat and cooling suddenly in cold water, 
copper being annealed in the same way that steel is 
hardened. Copper annealed this way is left very 
soft, somewhat like lead. Hammering copper or 
brass causes it to harden and become springy. 
When working brass or copper, if much bending or 
hammering is done, the metal should be annealed 
frequently 



232 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Bending Cast Iron. — It is sometimes necessary to 
straighten castings which have become warped or 
twisted. This may be done to some extent by 
heating the iron and bending into the desired shape. 
The part to be bent should be heated to what might 
be described as a dull-yellow heat. The bending is 
done by gradually applying pressure, not by blows. 
For light work two pairs of tongs should give about 
the right amount of leverage for twisting and bend- 
ing. 

When properly handled (very "gingerly"), thin 
castings may be bent to a considerable extent. 
Before attempting any critical work some experi- 
menting should be done on a piece of scrap to deter- 
mine at just what heat the iron will work to the 
best advantage, and how much bending it will 
stand without breaking. 

Case-hardening. — Case-hardening is a process by 
which articles made of soft steel or wrought iron 
are given a hard wearing surface. 

Wrought iron or machine-steel will not harden 
to any appreciable extent, and this fact would pre- 
vent the use of either metal in many places where 
they would be the ideal materials if they could only 
be given a hard surface. 

This hard surface can, however, be had by 
means of the process known as "Case-hardening." 
(Wrought iron and machine-steel are taken as 
being practically alike, as they are, so far as chemi- 
cal composition is concerned.) 

Practically the only difference between wrought 
iron and tool-steel is that tool-steel contains a little 



MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 233 

more of the element called carbon than wrought 
iron does. Tool-steel can be hardened by heating 
to a red heat and cooling suddenly, because it does 
contain this carbon ; while wrought iron can not be 
hardened, on account of the lack of it. If then by 
some means carbon can be added to the metal on 
the outside of an article made of wrought iron or 
machine-steel, the outside part will be made into 
tool-steel, and may then be hardened in the ordinary 
manner, while the inside metal will be soft and 
unchanged. 

Wrought iron or machine-steel if heated to a high 
heat in contact with charred leather, ground bone, 
or other material containing a great deal of carbon 
will ' ' take up " or absorb carbon from that mate- 
rial; and the outside will be converted into a high- 
carbon (tool) steel, which may be hardened by cool- 
ing suddenly from a high heat. This process is 
known as case-hardening, and is used for work 
which requires a hard wearing surface backed up 
by a softer and tougher material to resist shocks. 

If a piece of wrought iron which has been 
case-hardened be broken across, it will appear 
something like Fig. 271. The out- 
side layer, or coating, of hard steel 
can be easily distinguished from 
the inner core of softer unchanged 
metal. 

The " depth of penetration" of 
the carbon (or, in other words, the 
depth to which the iron is changed 
into steel) is determined by the temperature to which 




234 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

the metal is heated, the length of time it is kept at 
that temperature, and the substance it is heated in 
contact with. 

The carbon penetrates faster at a high heat; but 
a high heat can not always be used, particularly if 
that mottled appearance so often seen on case- 
hardened articles is wanted. Pieces which are to 
be mottled should not be heated much above a 
good red heat, as a higher heat destroys the color. 
The longer the work is kept at the proper heat the 
deeper the carbon penetrates. So, when the same 
heat and the same case-hardening mixture are used 
all the time, the depth of hardness on the pieces 
treated can be determined by the length of time 
the pieces are hot. For ordinary work, where it is 
not necessary to have the mottled coloring on the 
pieces, about a good yellow heat should be used — 
about as high a heat as ordinary cast iron will stand 
without danger of going to pieces. 

As stated before, a case-hardened piece of iron 
or machine-steel is really made up of two distinct 
metals — the outside hard shell of high-carbon steel 
(which is the same as tool-steel) and the inside 
softer core of the original material. This outside 
coating can be treated in the same manner as ordi- 
nary tool-steel; that is, it can be hardened and 
annealed just as tool-steel is. In fact, when a case- 
hardened article is suddenly cooled from a red heat 
exactly the same thing is done as when hardening 
a piece of ordinary tool-steel, with, however, this dif- 
ference: in hardening tool-steel the piece is hard- 
ened clear through, and for ordinary purposes is so 



MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 235 

hard as to be almost useless; while with a piece of 
case-hardened machine-steel, for instance, the out- 
side only is hardened (because the outside only is 
tool-steel), while the inside is left tough and com- 
paratively soft. In the case-hardened piece there 
is a tough inside core which will stand shocks 
that would snap off a piece of hardened tool-steel 
and an outside coating which is as hard and is the 
same as hardened tool-steel. This gives a combi- 
nation of hardness and toughness which is not pos- 
sible with either machine-steel or tool-steel alone; 
and it is this fact which makes case-hardened arti- 
cles so valuable for many purposes. 

To repeat: The object of case-hardening is to 
convert the outside of a low carbon steel or iron into 
a high-carbon steel that can be hardened easily; 
and this converting is done by heating the piece in 
contact with some substance containing a large 
amount of carbon. 

By taking certain precautions while heating and 
cooling, the surface of the case-hardened pieces 
may be given a mottled coloring of reds, blues, and 
greens, which when rightly done is sometimes very 
beautiful. Such coloring is often seen on gun- 
locks, finished wrenches, etc. 

Two common methods of case-hardening are in 
use — what might be called the cyanide method 
and the bone or animal-charcoal process. 

Cyanide Case-hardening. — For the cyanide method 
cyanide of potassium is used — the purer the better. 

One way of using the cyanide is as follows : Small 
pieces and pieces which need only a very thin shell 



236 F02GE-PRACTICE. 

of hard steel are heated to a high red heat, drawn 
from the fire and sprinkled over with cyanide of 
potassium, reheated for a few seconds to give- the 
carbon from the cyanide a chance to ' ' soak in, ' ' 
drawn from the fire again, sprinkled with the cya- 
nide, and cooled in cold water. This is an easy and 
quick way when it will answer the purpose. 

This method is also of use when case-hardening 
in spots. When only a hole or some small part of 
a piece is wanted hardened a small piece of the 
cyanide may be placed on that particular spot 
and the hardening confined to the area covered by 
the cyanide. 

Another method of using the cyanide is to melt 
it and heat red-hot in a ladle or pot. The pieces to 
be case-hardened are heated and placed in the red- 
hot cyanide and left there for some minutes. After 
' ' soaking ' ' a proper length of time they are hard- 
ened by cooling in cold water. 

This method when properly carried out gives a 
mottled appearance to the case-hardened surfaces 
if they have been previously polished. 

The longer the articles are left in the heated cya- 
nide the deeper will be the penetration of the carbon, 
although not quite in proportion to the time. 
Heating in this way for about ten minutes will give 
a penetration of perhaps one hundredth of an inch. 

Case-hardening with Bone. — -This method is used 
when a deeper coating is needed. The pieces are 
first packed in an iron box in such a way that they 
are completely surrounded by ground bone or 
some other material containing a great deal of ani- 



MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 237 

mal carbon. On the bottom of the box is placed a 
layer of the ground bone about an inch deep; on 
this are laid pieces to be case-hardened, leaving a 
space about three-quarters of an inch wide on all 
sides of every piece; over these pieces is put more 
bone, covering them about one inch deep; then 
more pieces and more bone until the box is full. 
There must be a top layer of bone at least as thick, 
if not somewhat thicker, than the bottom layer. 
The box is then sealed up air-tight (to prevent the 
oxidation of the bone) with fire-clay and it and its 
contents heated in a furnace to the right heat and 
kept at this heat for several hours. The deeper the 
coating is needed the longer the box is kept hot. 
When the box has been heated long enough it is 
withdrawn from the fire, the top taken off, and the 
pieces picked out while still red-hot and hardened 
in cold water. Or, as is often done, after taking 
off the top of the box it is turned bottom side up 
over the tank and the whole contents, bone and all, 
dumped into the water. 

The boxes used are made of cast or wrought iron, 
but cast-iron boxes are very satisfactory and are 
easily replaced as they wear out. 

The bone may be used several times before it is 
"spent." 

When it is desired to give the articles a bright 
mottled color on the surface they must be polished 
before case-hardening and should be packed in 
"charred" bone; that is, fresh bone which has 
been heated just hot enough to char it black. 

When cooling, the cover of the box should- be 



238 FORGE-PRACTICE. 

removed and the articles dumped by turning the 
box upside down over the cooling-tank, keeping the 
box very close to the surface of the water. 

Good results are obtained by using a mixture of 
about half and half charred bone and powdered 
charcoal. 

The penetration of the carbon is perhaps one 
hundredth of an inch for each hour the pieces are 
left hot. It is possible to convert a piece of wrought 
iron to tool-steel clear through in this way. 

Sometimes cyanide is mixed with the bone and 
used as above. This hastens the penetration of 
the carbon somewhat. 

Milling-cutters and tools of that character which 
are only to be used once, or on light work, may be 
made of machine-steel and case-hardened by using 
bone. 

After case-hardening, or carbonizing, they may 
be hardened, tempered, and ground in the usual 
way. 

Case-hardening, in Parts Only, of Pieces. — Some- 
times it is desirable to case-harden only certain 
parts of a piece. In such a case the parts to be left 
untreated may be covered with a coating of clay 
held in place with wire. Wherever the work is 
protected by the clay it remains uncarbonized, 
while the uncovered parts can be hardened. After 
covering the parts with the clay as above, the case- 
hardening may be done in the usual way by pack- 
ing the object in bone and heating as usual. 

Another way of obtaining the same result is to 
carbonize the entire surface and then machine off 



MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 



239 



the parts wanted untreated; thus, suppose a shaft 
is wanted similar to Fig. 272, A, with only the parts 



D 




E 




F 














B 



Fig. 272. 

marked D, E, and F case-hardened. When the 
shaft is first made, only the parts wanted hard 
(D, E, and F) should be turned to size, the rest 
being left in the rough. 

The shaft is then carbonized in the usual way 
and annealed instead of hardened. The rough parts 
are then turned to size; the cut taken removes all 
of the carbonized coating on these parts, exposing 
the untreated metal underneath. After this the 
shaft is heated in a fire and hardened, and as the 
parts D, E, and F are the only parts left carbonized, 
they will be the only parts hardened, leaving the 
rest soft. 



TABLES. 



TABLE I. 
Circumferences and Areas of Circles. 



Diam- 


Circumfer- 


Area. 


Diam- 


Circumfer- 


Area. 


eter. 


ence. 




eter. 


ence. 




i 


•7854 


.0490 


3 


9 .4248 


7.0686 


% 




9817 


.0767 


* 


9-8175 


7 .6699 


3. 

8 


I 


1781 


.1104 


i 


10.210 


8.2958 


% 


I 


3744 


•I5°3 


1 


10 .603 


8 .9462 


\ 


I 


57o8 


.1963 


i 


10 .996 


9 .6211 


% 


I 


7671 


.2485 


5 

s 


11.388 


10.321 


s 


I 


9635 


.3068 


3. 

4 


II .781 


11.045 


% 


2 


1598 


•3712 


7 


12.174 


n-793 


3. • 

4 


2 


3562 


.4417 


4 


12 . 566 


12 . 566 


.'16 


2 


55 2 5 


.5184 


1 

"S" 


12.959 


13-364 


7 
7f 


2 


7489 


.6013 


i 


I3-352 


14.186 


% 


2 


945 2 


.6902 


3. 

8 


13-744 


i5- 33 


I 


3 


1416 


•7854 


h 


14-137 


15904 


Ye 


3 


3379 


.8866 


f 


14-530 


16 .800 


i 


3 


5543 


.9940 


I 


14-923 


17 . 728 


% 


3 


7306 


1. 1075 


7 

"8" 


I5-3I5 


18.665 


i 


3 


9270 


1 . 2272 


5 


15.708 


19-635 


% 


4 


I2 33 


I-353Q 


1 


16 . 101 


20 .629 


I 


4 


3 1 97 


1 .4849 


i 


i6.493 


21 .648 


Jf6 


4 


5160 


1 .6230 


1 


16.886 


22 .691 


£ 


4 


7124 


1 .7671 


1 


17.279 


23-758 


% 


4 


9087 


■i-9i75 


f 


17.671 


24.850 


f 


5 


1051 


2.0739 


i 


18 .064 


25.967 


% 


S 


3014 


2.2365 


i 


l8 -457 


27 . 109 


* 


5 


4978 


2.4053 


6 


18.850 


28 . 274 


% 


5 


6941 


2 . 5802 


i 


19 . 242 


29.465 


I 


5 


8905 


2 . 7612 


i 


19-635 


30 .680 


% 


6 


0868 


2.9483 


f 


20 .028 


3i-9 I 9 


2 


6 


2832 


3-i4i6 


1 


20 .420 


33-183 


%, 


6 


4795 


3-34io 


f 


20.813 


34-472 


\ 


6 


6759 


3-5466 


t 


21 . 206 


35-785 


% 


6 


8722 


3-7583 


* 


21.598 


37.122 


\ 


7 


0686 


3-976i 


7 


21 .991 


38.485 


% 


7 


2649 


4 . 2000 


i 


22.384 


39-871 


f 


7 


4613 


4-4301 


I 


22 . 776 


41 . 282 


JTe 


7 


6576 


4 .6664 


t 


23.169 


42 . 718 


\ 


7 


8540 


4-9087 


1 


23.562 


44-179 


% 


8 


0503 


5-I572 


f 


23-955 


45.664 


f 


8 


2467 


5-4ii9 


I 


24-347 


47-173 


% 


8 


443° 


5.6727 


i 


24 . 740 


48.707 


I 


8 


6394 


5-9396 


8 


25-!33 


50-265 


% 


8 


8357 


6 . 2126 


I 


2 5-525 


5I-849 


i 


9 


0321 


6 .4918 


i 


25.918 


53-456 


% 


9 


2284 


6.7771 


1 


26 . 311 


55-o88 



243 



244 



TABLES. 



T AB LE I— {Continued) . 
Circumferences and Areas of Circles. 



Diam- 
eter. 


Circumfer- 
ence. 


Area. 


Diam- 
eter. 


Circumfer- 
ence. 


Area. 


8* 


26 . 704 


56.745 


i6i 


5I-05I 


207.39 


f 


27 .096 


58.426 


1 
2 


5I-836 


213 .82 


I 


27.489 


60 . 132 


3. 
i 


52 . 622 


220.35 


i 


27.882 


61 .862 


*7 


53-407 


226 .98 


9 


28 . 274 


63.617 


1 


54-I9 2 


233-7I 


i 


28.667 


65397 


\ 


54.978 


240.53 


i 


29 .060 


67 . 201 


4 


55-763 


247-45 


t 


29.452 


69 . 029 


18 


56-549 


254-47 


} 


29.845 


70.882 


1 


57-334 


261. *59 


f 


3°- 2 3 & 


72 . 760 


1 


58.119 


268.80 


f 


30631 


74 .662 


I 


58.905 


276 . 12 


i 


31.023 


76.589 


19 


59.690 


283-53 


10 


31.416 


78.540 


1 


60 .476 


291 .04 


i 


31 .809 


80.516 


1 


61.261 


298.65 


i 


32 . 201 


82.516 


Sl 

4 


62 .046 


306.35 


I 


32.594 


84-54I 


20 


62.832 


314.16 


1 


32.987 


86.590 


i 


63.617 


322 .06 


f 


33-379 


88.664 


1 


64.403 


330.06 


! 


33-772 


90.763 


f 


65.188 


338.16 


* 


34.165 


92.886 


21 


65-973 


346.36 


ii 


34-558 


95-033 


i 


66.759 


354-66 


t • 


34-95° 


97.205 


1 


67-544 


363-05 


i 


35-343 


99 .402 


3 

4~ 


68.330 


371-54 


! 


35-736 


101 .62 


22 


69.115 


380.13 


1 


36.128 


103.87 


1 
4 


69 . 900 


388.82 


f 


36.521 


106 . 14 


i 


70.686 


397-6i 


1 


36. 9*4 


108.43 


i 


71.471 


406 .49 


i 


37-3°6 


110.75 


23 


72.257 


4I5-48 


12 


37-699 


113. 10 


1 


73-042 


424.56 


t 


38.485 


117.86 


i 


73-827 


433-74 


* 


39.270 


122.72 


i 


74613 


443-oi 


i 


40.055 


127.68 


24 


75-398 


452-39 


13 


40 .841 


132.73 


i 


76 . 184 


461 .86 


i 


41 .626 


I37-89 


i 


76 .969 


47 1 -44 


} 


42.412 


i43- I 4 


a. 

4 


77-754 


481 . 11 


f 


43-197 


148.49 


25 


78.540 


490.87 


14 


43.982 


153-94 


1 


79-325 


5°°-74 


i 


44.768 


I59-48 


\ 


80 . 11 1 


510.71 


\ 


45-553 


165.13 


I 


So. 896 


520.77 


i 


46.338 


170 .87 


26 


81.681 


53°-93 


15 


47.124 


176 . 71 


i 


82 .467 


54i-i9 


i 


47.909 


182.65 


I 


83-252 


551-55 


h 


48.695 


188.69 


I 


84.038 


562 .00 


I 


49 .480 


194-83 


27 


84.823 


572.56 


16 


50-265 


201 .06 


1 


85.608 


583-21 



TABLES. 



245 



TABLE I— (Continued). 
Circumferences and Areas of Circles. 



Diam- 
eter. 


Circumfer- 
ence. 


Area. 


Diam- 
eter. 


Circumfer- 
ence. 


Area. 


27h 


86.394 


593 -9 6 


381 


121.737 


H79-3 


3. 

4 


87.179 


604.81 


39 


122 .522 


1194 .6 


28 


87965 


6 i5-75 


X 

4 


I23.308 


1210 .0 


1 


88.750 


626.80 


1 


I24.093 


1225.4 


h 


89-535 


637-94 


3 

4 


I24.878 


1241 .0 


i 


90.321 


649 . 18 


40 


125 .664 


1256 . 6 


29 


91 . 106 


660 . 52 


\ 


126 .449 


, 1272 .4 


\ 


91 .892 


671 .96 


h 


127.235 


1288.2 


h 


92 .677 


6S3.49 


I 
4 


128 .020 


1304.2 


4 


93.462 


695 -13 


4* 


128.805 


1320.3 


3° 


94 . 248 


706.86 


1 
4 


I29.59I 


1336.4 


i 


95-033 


718.69 


1 

1 


130.376 


1352-7 


\ 


95.819 


730.62 


a. 

4 


131 . l6l 


1369.0 


! 


96 .604 


742.64 


42 


*3 I -947 


1385-4 


31 


97-389 


754-77 


1 


132.732 


1402 .0 


i 


98.175 


766 .99 


h 


i33-5 l8 


1418.6 


f 


98 . 960 


779-31 


1 


134-303 


1435-4 


I 


99.746 


791-73 


43 


135.088 


1452.2 


32 


100.531 


804.25 


i 


i35- 8 74 


1469 . 1 


i 


101 . 316 


816.86 


\ 


136.659 


i486 . 2 


1 


102 . 102 


829.58 


3 
i 


137-445 


I503-3 


3 


102 .887 


842.39 


44 


138.230 


1520.5 


33 


103.673 


855-30 


i 


I 39- OI 5 


1537-9 


1 


104.458 


868.31 


1 


139.801 


J555-3 


1 


105.243 


881 .41 


t 


140 . 586 


1572.8 


4 


106 .029 


894 .62 


45 


141 -37 2 


I590-4 


34 


106 .814 


907 .92 


1 

T 


142.157 


1608.2 


i 


107 .600 


921 .32 


1 

5 


142 .942 


1626 .0 


i 


108.385 


934.82 


a 
4 


143.728 


i643-9 


4 


109 . 170 


948 .42 


46 


i44. 5*3 


1661 .9 


35 


109.956 


962 . 1 1 


i 


145.299 


1680 .0 


i 


no . 741 


975-91 


1 


146 .084 


1698 . 2 


1 


III .527 


989.80 


4 


146 . 869 


1716.5 


3. 
4 


112 . 312 


1003 .8 


47 


I 47- 6 55 


1734-9 


36 


II3.O97 


1017 .9 


1 

4 


148 .440 


J 753-5 


i 


II3.883 


1032 . 1 


1 


149 . 226 


1772 . 1 


1 


II4.668 


1046.3 


3 
4 


150 .Oil 


1790 .8 


4 


"5-454 


1060 . 7 


48 


150.796 


1809 .6 


37 


116.239 


1075.2 


1 
4 


I5I-5 82 


1828.5 


1 


117. 024 


1089.8 


1 


152-367 


i847-5 


1 


1 17 . 810 


1104.5 


£ 

4 


153-153 


1866.5 


4 


118.596 


1 1 19 . 2 


49 


I53-938 


1885.7 


3§ 


119 .381 


H34-I 


1 

4 


I54-723 


1905.0 


1 


120 . 166 


1 149. 1 


1 
2 


I55-509 


1924.4 


i 


120.951 


1 164 . 2 


I 


156.294 


1943-9 



246 



TABLES. 



TABLE I— (Continued) . 
Circumferences and Areas of Circles. 



Diam- 
eter. 


Circumfer- 
ence. 


Area. 


Diam- 
eter. 


Circumfer- 
ence. 


Area. 


5° 


157 .080 


I963-5 


62* 


196.350 


3068 .0 


i 


I57-865 


1983.2 


63" 


197 .920 


3117.2 


1 


158.650 


2003 .0 


i 


199.491 


3166.9 


I 


I59-436 


2022 .8 


64 


201 .062 


3217.0 


5 1 


160 . 221 


2042 .8 


1 


202 .633 


3267.5 


1 
4 


161 .007 


2062 .9 


65 


204 . 204 


3318.3 


\ 


161 . 792 


2083 . I 


} 


205.774 


3369.6 


I 


162.577 


2I03.3 


66 


207.345 


3421 .2 


5 2 


163.363 


2123.7 


h 


208 .916 


3473-2 


1 
4 


164 . 148 


2144 . 2 


67" 


2 10 .487 


3525-7 


1 


164.934 


2164. S 


1 


212 .058 


3578.5 


4 


165.719 


21S5.4 


6S 


213 .628 


3631-7 


53 


166 . 504 


2206 . 2 


i 


215.I99 


3685.3 


1 


167 . 290 


2227 .O 


69 


2l6 . 770 


3739-3 


1 


168.075 


224S .O 


\ 


218.34I 


3793-7 


i 

4 


168.861 


2269 . I 


70 


219.911 


3848.5 


54 


169 . 646 


229O . 2 


\ 


221 .482 


3903.6 


\ 


i7°-43! 


23 11 -5 


7 1 


223.053 


3959-2 


\ 


171 . 217 


2332.8 


\ 


224 .624 


4015.2 


3l 
4 


172. 002 


2354.3 


72 


226 . I95 


4071.5 


55 


172.788 


2375-8 


1 


227.765 


4128.2 


1 


173-573 


2397-5 


73 


229.336 


4185.4 


1 


174- 35 8 


2419 . 2 


\ 


230.907 


4242.9 


A 

4 


i75- I 44 


2441 .1 


74 


232.478 


4300.8 


56 


175.929 


2463.0 


i 


234.O49 


4359-2 


1 
4 


176.715 


2485.0 


75 


235.619 


44I7-9 


1 


177.500 


2507.2 


1 
5 


237.I9O 


4477-° 


1 

4 


178.285 


2529.4 


76 


238.761 


4536.5 


57 


179 .071 


255 1 - 8 


} 


240.332 


4596.3 


1 
4 


179.856 


2574-2 


77 


24I.903 


4656.6 


i 

2 


180 .642 


2596.7 


i 


243-473 


47I7-3 


4 


181 .427 


2619 .4 


7s 


245.O44 


4778.4 


5S 


182 .212 


2642 . 1 


\ 


246 .615 


4839.8 


1 

4 


182 .998 


2664 .9 


79 


248.186 


4901 .7 


} 


183-783 


2687.8 


1 


249-757 


4963-9 


3 
4 


184.569 


2710.9 


So" 


251-327 


5026.5 


59 


185.354 


2734-0 


1 


252 .898 


5089.6 


1 

4 


186.139 


2757.2 


81 


254.469 


5I53-0 


\ 


186.925 


2780.5 


\ 


256 .040 


5216.8 


4 


187 .710 


2803.9 


S2" 


257 .611 


5281 .0 


60 


188.496 


2827.4 


\ 


259.181 


5345-6 


1 


190 .066 


2874.8 


83 


260.752 


5410.6 


61" 


191 .637 


2922.5 


i 


262.323 


5476.o 


1 


193 . 208 


2970.6 


84 


263 .894 


5541-8 


62 


194.779 


3019. 1 


* 


265.465 


5607.9 



TABLES. 



247 



TABLE I— {Continued) . 
Circumferences and Areas of Circles. 



Diam- 


Circumfer- 




Diam- 


Circumfer- 


Area. 


eter. 


ence. 




eter. 


ence. 




S5 


267.035 


5 6 74.5 


93 


292 . 168 


6792.9 


1 


268.606 


574L5 


* 


293-739 


6866.1 


86 


270 . 177 


5808.8 


94 


295. 3 IQ 


6939.8 


1 


271 .748 


5876.5 


1 


296.881 


7013.8 


87 


273-3I9 


5944-7 


95 


298.451 


7088.2 


* 


274.889 


6013.2 


\ 


300 .022 


7163.0 


88 


276 .460 


6082.1 


96 


3 OI -593 


7238.2 


4 


278.031 


6151.4 


\ 


303.164 


7313-8 


89 


279 .602 


6221 . 1 


97 


3°4-734 


7389.8 


\ 


281 .173 


6291 . 2 


\ 


3°6.3°5 


7466 .2 


90 


282.743 


6361.7 


98 


307.876 


7543-Q 


1 


284.314 


6432.6 


1 


3°9-447 


7620 . 1 


9i 


285.885 


65 3.9 


99 


311 .018 


7697.7 


\ 


287.456 


6575.5 


\ 


312.588 


7775-6 


92 


289 .027 


6647 .6 


100 


3*4.1-59 


7854.0 


h 


290.597 


6720 . 1 









24S 



TABLES. 



TABLE II. 
Temperatures to which Hardened Tools should be Heated 
to Properly "Draw the Temper," together with 
the Colors of Scale appearing on a Polished-steel 
Surface at those Temperatures, . nd other Means 
of Detecting Proper Heating. 



Kind of Tool. 


Temper- 
ature , 
Fahr. 


Color of 
Scale. 


Action of 
File. 


Other Indi- 
cations. 


Scrapers for ordi- 


200° 






Water dries 


nary use. 








quickly. 


Burnishers. 




Very pale 


Can hardly 


Lard-oil 


Light turning and 


430° 


yellow. 


be made 


smokes 


finishing tools. 






to catch. 


slightly. 


Engraving-tools. 






Can be 




Lathe-tools. 






made to 




Milling-cutters. 


460 


Straw - yel- 


catch 




Lathe- and planer- 




low. 


with dif- 




tools for heavy 






ficulty. 




work. 










Taps. 










Dies for screw-cut'g. 










Reamers. 










Punches. 










Dies. 










Flat drills. 










Wood- working tools. 


5°o° 


Brown -yel- 






Plane-irons. 




low. 






Wood-chisels. 










Wood-ttirning tools. 










Twist drills. 










Sledges. 










Bl'ksmiths' ham'rs. 










Cold-chisels for very 


53°° 


Light pur- 


Scratches. 




light work. 




ple. 






Axes. 


55°° 


Dark pur- 






Cold-chisels for or- 




ple. 






dinary use. 




Blue, ting'd 
slightly 
with red. 






Stone-cutting chisels 






Files with 




Carving-knives. 






great dif- 




Screw-drivers. 






ficulty. 




Saws. 










Springs. 


580 


Blue. 


Files with 


L a r d - i 1 




6io° 


Pale blue. 


difficulty 


burns or 




630 


Greenish 
blue. 




flashes. 



TABLES. 



249 





TABLE 


III. 




Decimal 


Equivalents of Fractions of C 


»NE INC 


From Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-book. 


1/64 


.015625 


33/64 


•515625 


l/3 2 


•°3 I2 5 


J 7/32 


•53125 


3/64 


.046875 


35/64 


•546875 


1/16 


.0625 


9/16 


•5625 


5/64 


.078125 


37'/64 


•578125 


3/32 


•09375 


19/32 


•59375 


7/64 


•109375 


39/64 


•609375 


1/8 


•125 


5/8 


• 625 


9/64 


. 140625 


41/64 


.640625 


5/32 


• I 5625 


21/32 


•65625 


11/64 


■17187S 


43/64 


.671875 


3/l6 


•1875 


11/16 


.6875 


13/64 


.203125 


45/64 


•703125 


7/32 


.21875 


23/32 


•71875 


15/64 


•234375 


47/64 


•734375 


1/4 


•25 


3/4 


•75 


17/64 


•265625 


49/64 


•765625 


9/32 


•28125 


25/32 


.78125 


19/64 


•296875 


5V64 


•796875 


5/l6 


•3125 


13/16 


8125 


21/64 


.328125 


53/64 


828125 


tl/32 


•34375 


27/32 


.84375 


23/64 


•359375 


55/64 


859375 


3/8 


•375 


7/8 


875 


2 5/64 


.390625 


57/64 


890625 


J 3/3 2 


•40625 


29/32 


90625 


27/64 


.421875 


59/64 


921875 


7/16 


•4375 


15A6 


9375 


29/64 


•453125 


61/64 


953125 


15/32 


.46875 


31/32 


96875 


3 x /64 


•484375 


63/64 


984375 


1/2 


•5° 


1 1. 





!-, * - 



Pi 


crj 


< 


.Q 


m 


cS 


h 


Wi 


o 


u 





(U 

o 

a 

o 

H 


» 


00 tooO OcotoOtooioOfNOfNOOOOOOO 

00 M no h to OnoO iO mton O O fo\o co O to "too <M 




co ^ tJ- to to ionO tooO On O w m N ro to tooo O co to 

W W t-1 h4 H *H H H CM N W 




S 


00 to cni On to -t O too "too fOtNH^o O On IonO to co O 
On ro to o 'too P) OnnO ^t H OnnO "t m On rooo rooo 00 CO 




c* co ro tJ" ■<*■ "+ to tovO t-00 COONOHi-icO"t > OtoOco 

HMHHHHhHCtC^ 




\* 


iomJih co to to o tooo « to on co to o oo toroo too 
toco h tooo w "t h to co O no cni On to ex 't to o rooo "t 




cni ex co co co rt "t to tONO to tooo oo On O h <M *t to to o 

H W M M M M W 




s 


<N ON lO CN! ON^O CNI IO00 H "tOO H "t to O NC^OllONO 

H COM3 On w i^ to cni to CO00 co ON "t On to tONO NO tooO O 




(N cni ex cni co co ro 't 't to iono no to tooo OvO h « "tr. 

W M H w w 




s 


O ti « f) tooo ro to to o ro tooo O to O to O O O 
NCNh CO to to On -tOO N NO m to On cooo NO to ro CM OnnO 




HHP)tNl<SMPtrOCOTJ-"+tOtO 10*0 NO toOO ON O H CO 

M H H 






ONCO no to co cni O 00 io<N OnnO CO O 00 to O "tOO CO m O 
TtNOOO O N "tNO On co to o 'too cni to On to "H/ h On ^f On 




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INDEX. 



Annealing, in general, 175, 191. 
at forge, 192. 
copper and brass, 231. 
" in boxes, 193. 

" , special methods of, 194. 
water, 192. 
Anvil, description of, 6. 

Bending, in general, 59. 
" cast iron, 232. 

duplicate work, 146. 
pipe, 226. 
Bessemer steel, making of, 165. 
Blast-furnace, description of, 160. 
Bolts, general dimensions of, 77. 

" , cupping-tool for, 78. 

" , heading-tool for, 78. 

" , making of, 77. 

" , upset-head, 79. 

" , welded-head, 80. 
Bone, for case-hardening, 236. 
Borax, use as flux, 21. 
Boss on flange, forging of, 144. 

" " lever, forging of, in. 
Bowls, making of, 88. 
Brace, or bracket, welded, 1 19. 
Brass, annealing of, 231. 
Brazing, flux used, 226. 
" , methods of, 223. 



251 



252 INDEX. 

Brazing, process of, 222. 
" , spelter for, 224. 
Butt-weld, 34. 

Calculation of stock, see Stock calculation. 

Cape-chisels, forging and tempering of, 199. 

Carbon, effect of, on iron and steel, 163, 164, 174, 175, 176. 

" , percentage of, in iron and steel, 159, 169. 
Case-hardening, in general, 232. 

" , colored, 235, 236, 237. 

" , different methods, 235. 

in boxes with bone, 236. 
in spots, 236, 238. 
" , penetration of carbon in, 236, 238. 

" with cyanide of potassium, 235. 

Cast iron, bending of, 232. 

" " , description of, 160. 
Chain, making of, 29. 

" , stock required to make link, 48. 
Chain-stock, forging of, 88. 

Chisels, blacksmith's, hot and cold, description and use, 6. 
" , , forging and tempering of, 218. 

" , " , grinding of, 8. 

" or cutters for steam-hammer, 123. 
Coal, requirements of forge, 2. 
Cold-chisel, description of blacksmith's, 7. 
" making of, 197. 

" tempering of, 180. 

Connecting-rod, forging of forked end, 104. 

" , " with steam-hammer, 138. 

" , stock calculation for, 93. 

Copper, annealing of, 231. 
Copper pipe, bending of, 226. 
Crank-shaft, calculation of stock required, 91. 

forging of, with steam-hammer, 135. 
" " single-throw, 90, 97. 
" " double-throw, 99. 
" " triple-throw, 101. 
Crucible-steel, 169. 
Cupping-tool, for bolts, 78. 
Cutting-block, description of, 10. 



INDEX. 253 



Cutting stock, methods of, 9. 

Cyanide of potassium, for case-hardening, 235. 

Drawing-out, definition and methods of, 51. 
Drift, use of, for hammer-eyes, 213. 
Drills, flat, 212. 

Drop-forging, description of, 154. 
, eye-bolt, 155. 
" , forming dies hot, 157. 

with steam-hammer, 155. 
Duplicate bending with block, 147. 

" with jig, 152. 
Duplicate work, 146. 

Eye, bending of, 64. 

" , weldless, making of, from flat stock, 109. 
Eye-bolt, drop-forging of, 155. 

Files, finish, allowance for, 95. 

" , hardening and tempering of, 187. 
Fire, banking of, 4. 

" , building of, 2. 

" , description of good, 3. 

" , oxidizing, 5. 
Flange, with boss, forging of, 143. 
Flux, for brazing, 226. 

" , use of, in welding, 20. 
Forge, description of, 1. 
Fork, welded, 119. 
Forked ends, forging of, 102, 107. 
Fullers, description of, 15. 
" , forging of, 220. 

Gate-hook, making of, 68. 

Hammers, description of, 10. 

" , ball pene-, 216. 

" , forging and tempering of, 212. 

" , riveting, 214. 

" , sledge, 217. 
Hardening, laws of, 176. See also Tempering. 



254 INDEX. 

Hardie, description of, 7. 

" , forging of, 218. 
Heading-tool, for bolts, 78. 
Hook, chain, 71. 

« , gate, 68. 

" i grab, 70. 

" , hoisting, 75. 

" , welded eye-, 74. 
Hot-chisel, description of, 7. 
" , forging of, 218. 

Iron, cast, making of, 160. 
" , wrought, making of, 163. 

Jump-weld, 35. 

Knuckles, forging of various kinds, 102. 

Ladles, making of, 86. 

Ladle-shank, forging of foundry, 114, 

Lathe-tools, in general, 200. 

" , boring, 205. 

" , centering, 210. 

" , cutting-off, 202. 

" , diamond-points, 206. 

" , finishing, 210. 

" , internal-thread, 206. 

" , round-nose, 201. 

" , side-finishing, 208. 

" , thread, 201. 

Machine-steel, making of, 165. 

" , properties of, 171, 172. 
Metallurgy of iron and steel, 159. 
Molder's trowel, forging of, 117. 

Open-hearth furnace, 167. 

" steel, making of, 167. 

Oxide, formation of, on iron, 5 , 
Oxidizing fire, 5. 
Oxygen, effect on heating iron, 5. 



INDEX. 255 



Pipe-bending, in general, 226. 

, copper, 230. 

, different methods, 228. 
with jigs, 229, 231. 
Planer-tools, see uridei Lathe-tools. 
Pointing, precautions necessary, 52. 
Puddling-furnace, 163. 
Punch, for steam-hammer, 141. 
Punching, method of, and tools used, 58. 
" , tools for duplicate, 142. 

Recalescence, description of, 182. 
Rings, amount of stock required, 46. 

" , bending up, 63. 

" , forging under steam-hammer, 139 

" , welding of flat-stock, 32. 

" , " " round-stock, 29. 

" j " " washer, 33. 

" , weldless, making of, no. 
Round-nosed chisels, 200. 

Sand, uses of, as flux, 21. 
Scarfing for weld, object of, 23. 
Set-hammer, description of, 14. 

, making of, 219. 
Shaper-tools, see under Lathe-tools. 
Shrinking, process of, 221. 
Sledges, description of, n. 

" , forging and tempering of, 217. 
Socket-wrench, forging of, 106. 
Spelter, for brazing, 224. 
Split-work, shaping from thin stock, 107. 
Spring-steel, welding of, 35. 
Square corner, forging of, 60. 
Steam-hammer, description of, 120. 

, cutting work under, 127. 

, forging taper work with, 130, 

, general notes on, 126. 

, tongs for, 121. 

, tools and swages for, 129. 

, tools for cutting, 123. 



256 INDEX. 

Steel, Bessemer, 165. 

" , machine or soft, 165. 

" , open-hearth, 167. 

" , tool, 169. 
Stock calculation, in general, 41. 

" for circles, 46. 

" " connecting-rod, 92. 

" " " curves, 44. 

" " " links, etc., 48. 

" " " simple bends, 44. 

" " single-throw crank, 

" " weldless ring, no. 



91. 



Taper-work, with steam-hammer, 130, 145. 
Tempering, in general, 179. 

" , bad shapes for, 187. 
" , definition and methods of, 176. 
" , different methods of, 180, 181, 185, 188, 190. 
" , heating for, 184. 
" , straightening work after, 186. 
" , thin flat work, 186. 
" to leave soft center, 190. 

" , see under individual tools. 
Tongs, description and use of different kinds, 12. 
" , fitting of, 13. 

" for round stock, forging of, 83. 
" for steam-hammer work, 121. 
" , forging bolt-, 84. 

" of lighthand-, 81. 
" pick-up, 84. 
" , " with welded handles, 84. 
" , forging with steam-hammer, 133. 
Tool-forging, in general, 198. 

Tools, see under individual tools; also under Lathe-tools. 
Tool-steel, hardening, 173. 
" , making of, 169. 
" , properties of, 192. 
" , tempering, 176. 
" , " temper "-rating, 174. 
Trowel, forging of moulders, 117. 
Truing-up of work, 54. 



INDEX. 257 



Truing-up of work under steam-hammer, 133. 
Tuyere, use and description of, 1. 
Twisting, for ornamental work, 66. 
" , " gate-hook, 70. 

Upsetting, definition and methods of, 55. 

Weight of forgings, calculation of, 94. 
Weld, angle, flat -stock, 37. 
" , butt, 34. 
" , chain, 19. 
" , faggot or pile, 22. 
" , flat lap-, 24. 
" , fork, 119. 
" iron to steel, 36. 
" , jump, 35. 
" , ring, flat stock, 32. 
" , " , round stock, 29. 
" , round lap-, 28. 
" , split, for heavy work, 36. 
" , split, for light work, 35. 
" , spring-steel, 35. 
" , "T", flat stock, 38. 
" , "T", round stock, 39. 
" , washer or flat ring, 33. 
Welding, in general, 17. 

" , allowance of stock for, 39. 
" , scarfing for, 23. 
" > spring-steel, 35, 40. 
" , tool-steel, 39. 
" , use of fluxes, 20. 
Wrench, for twisting crank-shaft, 100. 
" , forging of open-end, 105. 
" , " of socket-, 106. 
Wrought iron, making of, 113. 

" , properties of, 171, 172. 



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Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50 

Wiechmann's Sugar Analysis Small 8vo. 2 50 

Wilson's Cyanide Processes i2mo, I 50 

Chlorination Process i2mo, 1 50 

Wulling's Elementary Course in Inorganic Pharmaceutical and Medical Chem- 
istry. nmo , 2 00 

CIVIL ENGINEERING. 

BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING 
RAILWAY ENGINEERING. 

Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments i2mo, 3 00 

Bixby's Graphical Computing Table Paper 10^X24} inches. 25 

** Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal. (Postage, 

27 cents additional.) 8vo, nei, 3 50 

Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers 8vo, 2 50 

Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables 8vo, 1 00 

Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage i2mo, 1 50 

Practical Farm Drainage , nmo, 1 00 

Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.) Svo, 3 00 

Freitag's Architectural Engineering. 2d Edition, Rewritten Svo, 3 go 

French and Ives's Stereotomy 8vo, 2 50 

Goodhue's Municipal Improvements nmo, X 75 

Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Towns* Refuse 8vo, 3 50 

Gore's Elements of Geodesy 8vo, 2 50 

Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy. 8vo, 3 oc 

Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50 

Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth nmo, 1 25 

Johnson's Theory and Practice of Surveying Small 8vo, 4 00 

Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods ........................ 8vo, a 00 

3 



Kiersted's Sewage Disposal i2mo, i as 

Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) 12 mo, 2 00 

Mahan's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood.) 8vo, 5 00 

* Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 1 so 

Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy 8vo, 2 50 

Elements of Sanitary Engineering 8vo, 2 00 

Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors i6mo, morocco, 2 00 

Nugent's Plane Surveying . » 8vo, 3 50 

Ogden's Sewer Design i2mo, 2 00 

Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering 8vo half leather, 7 so 

Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, 5 00 

Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 3 s< 

Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry 8vo, 1 5* 

Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) 8vo, 2 50 

Sondericker's Graphic Statics, wun Applications to Trusses, Beams, and 

Arches 8vo, 2 00 

* Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book i6mo, morocco, 5 00 

Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 00 

Sheep, 6 50 
Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi- 
tecture. 8vo, 5 00 

Sheep, 5 50 

Law of Contracts 8vo, 3 00 

Warren's Stereotomy — Problems in Stone-cutting 8vo, 2 50 

Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments. 

i6mo, morocco, 1 25 

* Wheeler's Elementary Course of Civil Engineering 8vo, 4 00 

Wilson's Topographic Surveying , ,,.,,, .8vo, 3 50 

.BRIDGES AND ROOFS. 

Boiler's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges. .8vo, 2 00 

* Thames River Bridge 4to, paper, 5 00 

Burr's Course on the Stresses in Bridges and Roof Trusses, Arched Ribs, and 

Suspension Bridges 8vo, 3 50 

Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. VoL II Small 4to, 10 00 

Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to, 5 00 

Fowler's Coffer-dam Process for Piers 8vo, 2 50 

Greene's Roof Trusses 8vo, 1 25 

Bridge Trusses „ 8vo, 2 50 

Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone 8vo, 2 so 

Howe's Treatise on Arches 8vo, 4 00 

Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel 8vo, 2 00 

Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of 

Modern Framed Structures Small 4to, 10 00 

Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges: 

Part I. — Stresses in Simple Trusses 8vo, 2 50 

Part H. — Graphic Statics 8vo, 2 50 

Part IH. — Bridge Design. 4th Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 2 50 

Part IV. — Higher Structures 8vo, 2 50 

Morison's Memphis Bridge 4to, 10 00 

Waddell's De Pontibus, a Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers. . . i6mo, morocco, 3 00 

Specifications for Steel Bridges i2mo, 1 25 

Wood's Treatise on the Theory of the Construction of Bridges and Roofs. 8 vo, 2 00 
Wright's Designing of Draw-spans: ' 

Part I. — Plate-girder Draws 8vo, 2 50 

Part II. — Riveted-truss and Pin-connected Long-span Draws 8vo, 2 50 

Two parts in one volume 8vo, 3 50 

6 



HYDRAULICS. 

Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from an 

Orifice. (Trautwine.) 8vo, 2 00 

Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 00 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 00 

Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels paper, 1 50 

Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems i6mo, morocco, 2 50 

Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power nmo, 3 00 

Folwell's Water-supply Engineering , 8vo, 4 00 

FrizelPs Water-power. 8vo, 5 00 

Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo, 1 50 

Water-filtration Works i2mo, 2 50 

Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in 

Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trautwine.) 8vo, 4 00 

Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supply 8vo, 3 00 

Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water- works 8vo, 2 30 

Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal 

Conduits 8vo, 2 00 

Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Stand- 
point.) 3d Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 4 00 

Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics. 9th Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 5 00 

* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00 

Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water- 
supply Large 8vo, 5 00 

** Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Riyers. (Post., 44 c. additional), 4to, 6 00 

Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 00 

Wegmann's Desien and Construction of Dams 4to, 5 00 

Water-supply of the City of New York from 1638 to 1895 4to, 10 00 

Weisbach's Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 00 

Wilson's Manual of Irrigation Engineering Small 8vo, 4 00 

Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 00 

Wood's Turbines 8vo, 2 50 

Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 00 

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 

Baker's Treatise on Masonry Construction 8vo, 5 00 

Roads and Pavements 8vo, 5 00 

Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to, 5 00 

Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 so 

Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering. 6th Edi- 
tion, Rewritten ■ 8vo, 7 50 

Byrne's Highway Construction 8vo, 3 00 

Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed Jn Construction. 

i6mo, 3 00 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 00 

Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 4to, 7 50 

Johnson's Materials of Construction Large 8vo, 6 00 

Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 

Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols 8vo, 750 

Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 5 00 

Merriman's Text-book on the Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 4 00 

Strength of Materials nmo, 1 00 

Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, 2 00 

Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations 8vo, 5 00 

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Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France i2mo, 1 25 

Smith's Materials of Machines nmo, 1 00 

Snow's Principal Species of Wood 8vo, 3 50 

Spalding's Hydraulic Cement nmo, 2 00 

Text-book on Roads and Pavements '. i2mo, 2 00 

Thurston's Materials of Engineering. 3 Parts 8vo, 

Part I. — Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy 8vo, 

Part II. — Iron and Steel 8vo, 

Part III. — A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 

Constituents 8vo, 

Thurston's Text-book of the Materials of Construction 8vo, 

Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials 8vo, 

Waddell's De Pontibus. (A Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers.) . . i6mo, mor., 

Specifications for Steel Bridges nmo, 1 25 

Wood's Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on the Pres- 
ervation of Timber 8vo, 2 00 

Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 00 

Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel. . .8vo, 4 00 

RAILWAY ENGINEERING. 

Andrews's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers. 3X5 inches, morocco, 1 25 

Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 5 00 

Brooks's Handbook of Street Railroad Location i6mo. morocco, 1 50 

Butts's Civil Engineer's Field-book i6mo, morocco, 2 50 

Crandall's Transition Curve i6mo, morocco, 1 50 

Railway and Other Earthwork Tables 8vo, 1 50 

Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. i6mo, morocco, 5 00 

Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879) Paper, 5 00 

* Drinker's Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills, 4to, half mor., 25 00 

Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25 

Godwin's Railroad Engineers* Field-book and Explorers' Guide i6mo, mor., 2 50 

Howard's Transition Curve Field-book i6mo, morocco. 1 so 

Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em- 
bankments 8vo, 1 00 

Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers i6mo, 1 00 

Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers i6mo, morocco. 3 00 

Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers i6mo, morocco, 3 00 

Searles's Field Engineering i6mo, morocco, 3 00 

Railroad Spiral i6mo, morocco, 1 50 

Taylor's Prismoidal Formulae and Earthwork 8vo, 1 50 

* Trautwine's Method of Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and 

Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams 8vo, 2 00 

The Field Practice of [Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads. 

i2mo, morocco, 2 50 

Cross-section Sheet Paper, 25 

Webb's Railroad Construction. 2d Edition, Rewritten i6mo. morocco, 5 00 

Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways Small 8vo, 5 00 

DRAWING. 

Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 

* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 00 

* " * . " Abridged Ed 8vo, 1 50 

Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, 1 00 

Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi- 
neers. (In press.) 

Durlcy'fl ICinematic.e of Machines 8vo, 4 00 

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Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective Svo, 2 00 

Jamison's Elements of Mechanical Drawing. {In press.) 

Jones's Machine Design: 

Part I. — Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 1 50 

Part II. — Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 

MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometr> . , , 8vo, 

Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism , 8vo, 

Mechanical Drawing , « , 4to, 

Velocity Diagrams 8vo, 

* Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting 8vo, 

Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, 

Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, 

Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

lext-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. .8vo. 

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 

Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) 8vo, 

Warren's Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing. . i2mo, 

Drafting Instruments and Operations i2mo, 

Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing nmo, 

Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Form, and 

Shadow i2mo, 

Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry i2mo, 

Primary Geometry » . i2mo, 

Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 

General Problems of Shades and Shadows 8vo, 

Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing Svo, 

Problems. Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 

Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Hermann and 

Klein.) 8vo, 5 00 

Whelpley's Practical Instruction in the Art of Letter Engraving 12 mo, 2 00 

Wilson's Topographic Surveying ; 8vo, 3 50 

Free-hand Perspective 8vo, 2 50 

Free-hand Lettering 8vo, 1 00 

Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry. Large 8vo, 3 00 

'ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS. 

Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.) . . . .Small 8vo, 3 00 

Anthony's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measurements i2mo, 1 00 

Benjamin's History of Electricity 8 V0 , 3 o 

Voltaic Cell. , 8vo, 3 00 

Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.). .8vo, 3 00 

Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph 8vo, 3 00 

Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . i6mo, morocco, 5 00 
Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery). (Von 

Ende.) i2mo," r 2 50 

Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) 8vo , 4 00 

Flather's Dvnamometers, and the Measurement of Power i2mo, 3 00 

Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay.) 8vo, 2 50 

Hanchett's Alternating Currents Explained i2mo, 1 00 

Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50 

Holman's Precision of Measurements 8vo, 2 00 

Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests Large Svo, 75 

Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) 8vo, 3 00 

Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard — Burgess. )i2mo, 3 00 

Lob's Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) nmo, 1 00 

* Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and n. Svo, each, 6 00 

* Michw. Elesaeats 9f Wave Motion Relating to Sound and tight, , , , , , „8ve e 4 00 

& 



Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries. (FishDack. > i2mo, 2 50 

• Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee — Kinzbrunner.) 8vo, 1 50 

Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. VoL 1 8vo, 2 50 

Thurston's Stationary Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50 

* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat •. 8vo, 1 50 

Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics Small 8vo, 2 00 

TJlke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 00 



LAW. 

* Davis's Elements of Law 8vo, 2 50 

* Treatise on the Military Law of United States 8vo, 7 00 

* Sheep, 7 50 

Manual for Courts-martial i6mo, morocco, 1 50 

Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 00 

Sheep, 6 50 
Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi- 
tecture 8vo, 5 00 

Sheep, s 50 

Law of Contracts 8vo, 3 00 

Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law i2mo, 2 50 

MANUFACTURES. 

Bernadou's Smokeless Powder — Kitro-cellulose and Theory of the Cellulose 

Molecule nmo, 2 50 

Bolland's Iron Founder i2mo, 2 50 

" The Iron Founder," Supplement nmo, 2 50 

Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms Used in the 

Practice of Moulding nmo, 3 00 

Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo, 4 00 

Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.) 8vo, 3 00 

Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist i8mo, 1 00 

Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers i8mo, 1 00 

Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook 8vo, 3 00 

Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 

Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State 

Control. (In preparation.) 

Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, a 00 

Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures— And the Administration of Workshops, 

Public and Private 8vo, 5 00 

Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 00 

Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories i6mo, morocco, 1 50 

* Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing , 8vo, 25 00 

Smith's Press-working of Metals 8vo, 3 00 

Spalding's Hydraulic Cement i2mo, 2 00 

Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses i6mo, morocco, 3 00 

HandbooK tor sugar Manufacturers ana their Chemists.. .i6mo, morocco, 2 00 
Thurston's Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction and Opera- 
tion 8vo, 5 00 

* Walke's Lectures on Explosives ., 8vo, 4 00 

West's American Foundry Practice nmo, 2 so 

Moulder's Text-book nmo, 2 50 

Wiechmann's Sugar Analysis Small 8vo, 2 50 

Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 00 

Woodbury's Fire Protection of Mills 8vo, 2 50 

Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel. . .8vo, 4 00 

10 



MATHEMATICS. 

Baker's Elliptic Functions 8vo , i 50 

* Bass's Elements of Differential Calculus nmo, 4 00 

Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry nmo, 1 00 

Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations i2mo, 1 50 

Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra 8vo, 1 50 

* Dickson's College Algebra Large nmo, 1 50 

* Answers to Dickson's College Algebra 8vo, paper, 25 

* Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations Large i2mo, 1 25 

Halsted's Elements of Geometry 8vo, 1 75 

Elementary Synthetic Geometry 8vo, 1 50 

Rational Geometry i2mo, 1 75 

•Johnson's Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size paper, 15 

100 copies for 5 00 

* Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 X 10 inches, 25 

10 copies for 2 00 

Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus Small 8vo, 1 50 

Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates nmo, 1 00 

Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations Small 8vo, 3 50 

Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares nmo, 1 50 

* Theoretical Mechanics nmo, 3 00 

Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) nmo, 2 00 

* Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other 

Tables 8vo, 3 00 

Trigonometry and Tables published separately Each, 2 00 

* Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables 8vo, 1 00 

Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00 

Merriman and Woodward's Higher Mathematics 8vo, 5 00 

Merriman's Method of Least Squares 8vo, 2 00 

Rice and Johnson's Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus . Sm., 8vo, 3 00 

Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols, in one Small 8vo, 2 50 

Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish. (In press.) 

Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo, 2 00 

Trigonometry: Analytical, Plane, and Spherical 12 mo, 1 00 

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 

Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings nmo, 2 50 

Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 

* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 00 

* " " " Abridged Ed 8vo, 1 30 

Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes nmo, 2 00 

Carpenter's Experimental Engineering 8vo, 

Heating and Ventilating Buildings 8vo, 

Cary's Smoke Suppression in Plants using Bituminous Coal. (In prep- 
aration.) 

Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine Small 8vo, 

Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, 

Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical En- 
gineers. (In press.) 

Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing nmo, 

Treatise on Belts and Pulleys nmo, 

Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 

Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power nmo, 

Rope Driving nmo, 

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Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers „ i2mo, i 25 

Hall's Car Lubrication i2mo, 1 00 

Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50 

Hutton's The Gas Engine 8vo, 5 00 

Jones's Machine Design: 

Part I. — Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 1 50 

Part II. — Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 3 00 

Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-book i6mo, morocco, 5 00 

Kerr's Power and Power Transmission 8vo, 2 00 

MacCord's Kinematics; or. Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 00 

Mechanical Drawing 4to» 4 00 

Velocity Diagrams 8vo, 1 50 

Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, 3 50 

Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo, 3 00 

Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 00 

Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. .8vo, 3 00 

Richards's Compressed Air i2mo, 1 50 

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 00 

Smith's Press-working of Metals : ,8vo„ 3 00 

Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill 

Work. 8vo, 3 00 

Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics. i2mo, 1 00 

Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 870, 7 50 

Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. Herrmann — 

Klein.) 8vo, 5 00 

Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann — Klein.). .8vo, 500 

HydrauLcs and Hydraulic Motors. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 00 

Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 00 

Wood's Turbines 8vo, 2 50 

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 

Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50 

Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering. 6th Edition, 

Reset 8vo, 7 50 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 00 

Johnson's Materials of Construction Large 8vo, 6 00 

Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 

Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 8vo, 7 50 

Merriman's Tert-book on the Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 4 00 

Strength of Materials i2mo, 1 00 

Metcalf's SteeL A Manual for Steel-users i2mo. 2 00 

Smith's Materials of Machines i2mo I 00 

Thurston's Materials of Engineering 3 vols., Svo, 8 00 

Part H. — Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50 

Part IH. — A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 

Constituents 8vo 2 50 

Text-book of the Materials of Construction 8vo, 5 00 

Wood's Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on the 

Preservation of Timber 8vo, 2 00 

Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 00 

Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel. . .8vo, 4 00 

STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 

Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.) i2mo, s 50 

Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . i6mo, mor., 5 00 

Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers x8mo, I 00 

12 



Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo, 2 00 

Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy i2mo, a 00 

Hutton's Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants 8vo, 5 00 

Heat and Heat-engines 8vo, 5 00 

Kent's Steam-boiler Economy 8vo, 4 00 

Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector 8vo 1 go 

MacCord's Slide-valves 8vo, 2 00 

Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 00 

Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator nmo, 1 50 

Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors 8vo, 1 00 

Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines 8vo, 5 00 

Valve-gears for Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50 

Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers 8vo, 4 00 

Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator Large 8vo, 2 50 

Pupln's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors. 

(Osterberg.) nmo, 1 2s 

Reagan's Locomotives : Simple, Compound, and Electric nmo, 2 50 

Rontgen's Principles of Thermodynamics. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 00 

Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management i2mo, 2 00 

Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice nmo, 2 50 

Snow's Steam-boiler Practice 8vo, 3 00 

Spangler's Valve-gears 8vo, 2 50 

Notes on Thermodynamics nmo, 1 00 

Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering 8vo, 3 00 

Thurston's Handy Tables 8vo, 1 50 

Manual of the Steam-engine .... 2 vols.. 8vo, 10 00 

Part I. — History, Structuce, and Theory 8vo, 6 00 

Part H. — Design, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 6 00 

Handbook of Engine and Boi!er Trials, and the Use of the Indicator and 

the Prony Brake 8vo 5 oe 

Stationary Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50 

Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice i2mo 1 50 

Manual of Steam-boilers , Their Designs, Construction, and Operation . 8vo , 5 00 

Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 o© 

Whitham's Steam-engine Design 8vo, 5 00 

Wilson's Treatise on Steam-boilers. (Flather.) i6mo, 2 50 

Wood's Thermodynamics Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines. . . .8vo, 4 00 



MECHANICS AND MACHINERY. 



Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 

Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50 

Chase's The Art of Pattern-making nmo, 2 50 

Chordal. — Extracts from Letters nmo, 2 00 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 00 

Notes and Examples in Mechanics 8vo, 2 00 

Compton's First Lessons in Metal-working nmo, 1 50 

Compton and De Groodt's The Speed Lathe nmo, 1 50 

Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing nmo, 1 50 

Treatise on Belts and Pulleys i2mo, 1 50 

Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for the Use of Colleges and 

Schools '. nmo, 1 50 

Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making nmo, 2 00 

Dredge's Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of the World's 

Columbian Exposition of 1893 4to, half morocco, 5 00 

13 



Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics : 

Vol. I. — Kinematics 8vo, 3 50 

Vol. II. — Statics 8vo, 4 00 

Vol. HI. — Kinetics 8vo, 3 50 

Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 4to, 7 50 

Vol. II Small 4to, 10 00 

Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 00 

Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist i6mo, 1 00 

Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power i2mo, 3 00 

Rope Driving i2mo, 2 00 

Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo 2 00 

Hall's Car Lubrication i2mo, 1 00 

Holly's Art of Saw Filing i8mo, 75 

* Johnson's Theoretical Mechanics i2mo, 3 00 

Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods 8vo, 2 00 

Jones's Machine Design: 

Part I. — Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 1 50 

Part H. — Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 3 00 

Kerr's Power and Power Transmission 8vo, 2 00 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 

MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism. 8vo, 5 00 

Velocity Diagrams 8vo, 1 50 

Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00 

Merriman's Text-book on the Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 4 00 

• Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00 

Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric i2mo, 2 50 

Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 00 

Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. .8vo, 3 00 

Richards's Compressed Air nmo, 1 so 

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 00 

Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. 1 8vo, 2 50 

Sinclair's Locomotive-engine Running and Management nmo, 2 00 

Smith's Press-working of Metals 8vo, 3 00 

Materials of Machines i2mo, 1 00 

Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering 8vo, 3 00 

Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill 

Work 8vo, 3 00 

Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics, nmo, 1 00 

Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 7 50 

Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann — 

Klein.) 8vo, 5 00 

Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann — Klein.). 8vo, 5 00 

Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 00 

Principles of Elementary Mechanics i2mo, 1 25 

Turbines 8vo, 2 50 

The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 ■ .. .» 4t°> 1 00 

METALLURGY. 

Egleston's Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury: 

VoL I. — Silver 8vo, 7 50 

VoL II. — Gold and Mercury 8vo, 7 50 

** Iles's Lead-smelting. (Postage 9 cents additional.) i2mo, 2 50 

Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 

Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe 8vo, 1 50 

Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard — Burgess.) . i2mo, 3 00 

Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, 2 00 

Smith's Materials of Machines i2mo, 1 00 

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Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo, 8 00 

Part II. — Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 5° 

Part III. — A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 

Constituents 8vo, 2 50 

Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 00 

MINERALOGY. 

Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial Value. Oblong, morocco, 

Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia 8vo, 

Map of Southwest Virginia Pocket-book form, 

Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.) 8vo, 

Chester's Catalogue of Minerals 8vo, paper, 

Cloth, 

Dictionary of the Names of Minerals „ 8vo, 

Dana's System of Mineralogy Large 8vo, half leather, 

First Appendix to Dana's New "System of Mineralogy." Large 8vo, 

Text-book of Mineralogy 8vo, 

Minerals and How to Study Them „ i2mo, 

Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals Large 8vo, 

Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography nmo, 

Eakle's Mineral Tables 8vo, 

Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms 8vo, 

Hussak's The Determination of Rock-forming Minerals. (Smith.) Small 8vo, 
Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses 8vo, 4 00 

* Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests. 

8vo, paper, o 50 
Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals. 

(Iddings.) 8vo, 5 00 

* Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Docks 8vo, 2 00 

Williams's Manual of Lithology 8vo, 3 00 

MINING. 

Beard's Ventilation of Mines i2mo, 2 50 

Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia 8vo, 3 00 

Map of Southwest Virginia Pocket-book form, 2 00 

* Drinker's Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills. 

4to, half morocco, 25 00 

Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo, 4 00 

Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses i2mo, 2 00 

Goodyear's Coal-mines of the Western Coast of the United States i2mo, 2 50 

Ihlseng's Manual of Mining 8vo, 4 00 

** Iles's Lead-smelting. (Postage 9c. additional.) i2mo, 2 50 

Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe 8vo, I 50 

O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 2 00 

* V/alke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 4 00 

Wilson's Cyanide Processes. i2mo, 1 50 

Chlorination Process i2mo, 1 50 

Hydraulic and Placer Mining i2mo, 2 00 

Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation 12m© 1 25 

SANITARY SCIENCE. 

Copeland's Manual of Bacteriology. (In preparation.') 

Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction and Maintenance.) 8vo, 3 00 

Water-supply Engineering 8vo, 4 00 

Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo, 1 50 

Water-filtration Works nmo, 2 50 

15 



Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection i6mo, i oo 

Goodrich's Economical Disposal of Town's Refuse Demy 8vo, 3 50 

Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies 8vo, 3 00 

Kiersted's Sewage Disposal i2mo, 1 25 

Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State 

Control. (In preparation.) 
Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Stand- 
point.) 3d Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 4 00 

Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological. ) i2mo, 1 23 

Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering , , . , 8vo, 2 00 

Nichols's Water-supply. (Considered Mainly from a Chemical and Sanitary 

Standpoint.) (1883.) 8vo, 2 50 

Ogden's Sewer Design i2mo, 2 00 

Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference 

to Sanitary Water Analysis nmo, 1 25 

* Price's Handbook on Sanitation i2mo, 1 50 

Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries nmo, 1 00 

Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science i2mo, 1 00 

Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand- 
point .• 8vo, 2 00 

* Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer 8vo, 1 50 

Rideal's Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 3 50 

Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 00 

Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50 

WoodhulTs Notes and Military Hygiene i6mo, 1 50 



MISCELLANEOUS. 

Barker's Deep-sea Soundings 8vo, 2 00 

Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the 

International Congress of Geologists , Large 8vc 1 50 

Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds 8vc 4 00 

Haines's American Railway Management i2mo t 2 50 

Mott's Composition/Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Food. Mounted chart. 1 25 

Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound i6mo 1 00 

Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1824-1894. Small 8vo, 3 00 

Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament Large 8vo, 2 00 

Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog 8vo, 3 30 

Totten's Important Question in Metrology 8vo 2 50 

The World's Columbian Exposition ot 1893 4to, 1 00 

Worcester and Atkinson. Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance, 
and Suggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small 

Hospital i2mo, r 25 



HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS. 

Green's Grammar of the Hebrew Language 8vo, 3 00 

Elementary Hebrew Grammar ' nmo, 1 25 

Hebrew Chrestomathy 8vo, 2 00 

Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures. 

(Tregelles.) Small 4to, half morocco, 5 00 

Letteris'g Hebrew Bible 8vo, 2 25 

16 



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